Deer antlers: a zoological curiosity or the key to understanding organ regeneration in mammals?

Red deer bone and antler collagen are not isotopically equivalent in carbon and nitrogen

RATIONALE

Bone and antler collagen δ(13) C and δ(15) N values are often assumed to be equivalent when measured in palaeodietary, palaeoclimate and palaeocological studies. Although compositionally similar, bone grows slowly and is remodelled whereas antler growth is rapid and remodelling does not occur. These different patterns of growth could result in isotopic difference within antler and between the two tissue types. Here we test whether red deer (Cervus elaphus) bone and antler δ(13) C and δ(15) N values are equivalent, and whether intra-antler isotopic values are uniform.

METHODS

Bone and antler were isotopically analysed from six stags that lived in a temperate maritime climate on the Isle of Rum, Scotland. Multiple antlers from different years were sampled per individual, together with a single bone sample per individual. Up to 12 samples were taken along the length of each antler (total of 25 antlers, 259 samples) so that a chronological record of the isotopic composition during antler growth could be obtained. Collagen was extracted and its δ(13) C and δ(15) N values were measured by continuous-flow isotope ratio mass spectrometry.

RESULTS

Intra-antler collagen isotope signatures vary, and show that not all antlers from an individual or a growth year are equivalent in carbon and nitrogen isotopic ratios. δ(15) N values typically increase with distance along antler length, but no overall trend is observed in δ(13) C values. An isotopic offset is visible between bone and antler, with bone δ(13) C and δ(15) N values being higher in most cases.

CONCLUSIONS

Bone and antler collagen δ(13) C and δ(15) N values are not isotopically equivalent and are therefore not directly comparable in palaeodietary, palaeoclimate and palaeocological studies. Bone and antler collagen isotopic differences probably relate to differential metabolic processes during the formation of the two tissues. Intra- and inter-antler isotopic variations probably reflect the isotopic composition of an individual's diet rather than physiological parameters, and may have the potential to provide high-resolution individual-specific information in modern and ancient cervid populations. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Enhanced cartilage repair in 'healer' mice-New leads in the search for better clinical options for cartilage repair

Adult articular cartilage has a poor capacity to undergo intrinsic repair. Current strategies for the repair of large cartilage defects are generally unsatisfactory because the restored cartilage does not have the same resistance to biomechanical loading as authentic articular cartilage and degrades over time. Recently, an exciting new research direction, focused on intrinsic cartilage regeneration rather than fibrous repair by external means, has emerged. This review explores the new findings in this rapidly moving field as they relate to the clinical goal of restoration of structurally robust, stable and non-fibrous articular cartilage following injury.

How Somatic Adult Tissues Develop Organizer Activity

The growth and patterning of anatomical structures from specific cellular fields in developing organisms relies on organizing centers that instruct surrounding cells to modify their behavior, namely migration, proliferation, and differentiation. We discuss here how organizers can form in adult organisms, a process of utmost interest for regenerative medicine. Animals like Hydra and planarians, which maintain their shape and fitness thanks to a highly dynamic homeostasis, offer a useful paradigm to study adult organizers in steady-state conditions. Beside the homeostatic context, these model systems also offer the possibility to study how organizers form de novo from somatic adult tissues. Both extracellular matrix remodeling and caspase activation play a key role in this transition, acting as promoters of organizer formation in the vicinity of the wound. Their respective roles and the crosstalk between them just start to be deciphered.

Sika Deer Antler Collagen Type I-Accelerated Osteogenesis in Bone Marrow Mesenchymal Stem Cells via the Smad Pathway

Deer antler preparations have been used to strengthen bones for centuries. It is particularly rich in collagen type I. This study aimed to unravel part of the purported bioremedial effect of Sika deer antler collagen type I (SDA-Col I) on bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells. The results suggest that SDA-Col I might be used to promote and regulate osteoblast proliferation and differentiation. SDA-Col I might potentially provide the basis for novel therapeutic strategies in the treatment of bone injury and/or in scaffolds for bone replacement strategies. Finally, isolation of SDA-Col I from deer antler represents a renewable, green, and uncomplicated way to obtain a biomedically valuable therapeutic.

Changes in Regenerative Capacity through Lifespan

Most organisms experience changes in regenerative abilities through their lifespan. During aging, numerous tissues exhibit a progressive decline in homeostasis and regeneration that results in tissue degeneration, malfunction and pathology. The mechanisms responsible for this decay are both cell intrinsic, such as cellular senescence, as well as cell-extrinsic, such as changes in the regenerative environment. Understanding how these mechanisms impact on regenerative processes is essential to devise therapeutic approaches to improve tissue regeneration and extend healthspan. This review offers an overview of how regenerative abilities change through lifespan in various organisms, the factors that underlie such changes and the avenues for therapeutic intervention. It focuses on established models of mammalian regeneration as well as on models in which regenerative abilities do not decline with age, as these can deliver valuable insights for our understanding of the interplay between regeneration and aging.

Element concentrations and element ratios in antler and pedicle bone of yearling red deer (Cervus elaphus) stags-a quantitative X-ray fluorescence study

The present study compared the concentrations of different elements (Ca, P, Mg, Sr, Ba, K, S, Zn, Mn) as well as Ca/P, Ca/Mg, Sr/Ca, and Ba/Ca ratios in hard antler and pedicle bone of yearling red deer stags (n = 11). Pedicles showed higher concentrations of calcium and phosphorus and a higher Ca/Mg ratio than antlers, while antlers exhibited higher concentrations of potassium, sulfur, and manganese as well as higher Ca/P, Sr/Ca, and Ba/Ca ratios. The findings indicate that antlers are less mineralized and show less maturation of their bone mineral than pedicles. Antlers also showed a higher intrasample variation of mineralization than pedicles, which can be related to the shorter life span of the (deciduous) antlers compared to the (permanent) pedicles. It is suggested that antler bone formation is stopped before the theoretically possible degree of mineralization and mineral maturation is reached, resulting in antler biomechanical properties (high bending strength and work to fracture) that are well suited for their role in intraspecific fighting. It is further suggested that the differences in Sr/Ca and Ba/Ca ratios of antlers and pedicles are related to the dietary shift from milk to vegetation in combination with an increasing intestinal discrimination against Sr and Ba with age, resulting in a less marked difference in these ratios than would be expected based on the dietary shift alone. The findings of our study underscore the suitability of antlers and pedicles as models of bone mineralization and the influence of different animal-related and/or external factors on this process.

Antleroma in a Free-ranging White-tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus)

A 2-year-old male free-ranging white-tailed deer ( Odocoileus virginianus) was diagnosed with bilateral expansile tumors of antler origin. The deer was found dead by a landowner in High Springs, Florida. Two roughly spherical, multilobular, broad-based, bony, velvet-covered masses originated from each antler pedicle. These masses replaced or displaced many of the bones and soft tissues of the skull and extended through the left cribriform plate and the right petrous temporal bone, compressing portions of the brain. Microscopically, the masses closely resembled normal-growing antler, containing all the elements thereof but with areas of necrosis and hemorrhage suggestive of ischemi or trauma. Tumorlike outgrowths termed antleromas have been described in free-ranging and captive cervids and typically are associated with disruptions in the seasonal rise and fall of circulating testosterone necessary for normal antler growth, casting, and regeneration.

Phenotypic differences in white-tailed deer antlerogenic progenitor cells and marrow-derived mesenchymal stromal cells

Deer antlers are bony appendages that are annually cast and rapidly regrown in a seasonal process coupled to the reproductive cycle. Due to the uniqueness of this process among mammals, we reasoned that a fundamental characterization of antler progenitor cell behavior may provide insights that could lead to improved strategies for promoting bone repair. In this study, we investigated whether white-tailed deer antlerogenic progenitor cells (APC) conform to basic criteria defining mesenchymal stromal cells (MSC). In addition, we tested the effects of the artificial glucocorticoid dexamethasone (DEX) on osteogenic and chondrogenic differentiation as well as the degree of apoptosis during the latter. Comparisons were made to animal-matched marrow-derived MSC. APC and MSC generated similar numbers of colonies. APC cultures expanded less rapidly overall but experienced population recovery at later time points. In contrast to MSC, APC did not display adipogenic in vitro differentiation capacity. Under osteogenic culture conditions, APC and MSC exhibited different patterns of alkaline phosphatase activity over time. DEX increased APC alkaline phosphatase activity only initially but consistently led to decreased activity in MSC. APC and MSC in osteogenic culture underwent different time and DEX-dependent patterns of mineralization, yet APC and MSC achieved similar levels of mineral accrual in an ectopic ossicle model. During chondrogenic differentiation, APC exhibited high levels of apoptosis without a reduction in cell density. DEX decreased proteoglycan production and increased apoptosis in chondrogenic APC cultures but had the opposite effects in MSC. Our results suggest that APC and MSC proliferation and differentiation differ in their dependence on time, factors, and milieu. Antler tip APC may be more lineage-restricted osteo/chondroprogenitors with distinctly different responses to apoptotic and glucocorticoid stimuli.

The roles of endogenous retinoid signaling in organ and appendage regeneration

The ability to regenerate injured or lost body parts has been an age-old ambition of medical science. In contrast to humans, teleost fish and urodele amphibians can regrow almost any part of the body with seeming effortlessness. Retinoic acid is a molecule that has long been associated with these impressive regenerative capacities. The discovery 30 years ago that addition of retinoic acid to regenerating amphibian limbs causes "super-regeneration" initiated investigations into the presumptive roles of retinoic acid in regeneration of appendages and other organs. However, the evidence favoring or dismissing a role for endogenous retinoids in regeneration processes remained sparse and ambiguous. Now, the availability of genetic tools to manipulate and visualize the retinoic acid signaling pathway has opened up new routes to dissect its roles in regeneration. Here, we review the current understanding on endogenous functions of retinoic acid in regeneration and discuss key questions to be addressed in future research.

The structure of pedicle and hard antler bone in the European roe deer (Capreolus capreolus): a light microscope and backscattered electron imaging study

Deer antlers are deciduous bony structures that develop from permanent frontal outgrowths, the pedicles. While growth and bone architecture of antlers have been studied in greater detail, information on pedicle formation and structure is scarce. The present study provides information on the structure of pedicle and hard antler bone in the European roe deer. A pronounced seasonal variation in pedicle architecture was observed, with high porosity around antler casting and a very compact bone structure during the hard antler stage. These observations suggest a corresponding marked variation also in the biomechanical properties of the pedicles. The seasonally alternating extensive resorption and formation processes make the pedicles of older deer heavily remodeled structures. Pedicles increase in thickness by apposition of primary bone that subsequently becomes replaced by secondary osteons. The antler cortex of roe deer is largely composed of a tubular framework of woven bone trabeculae with some remnants of mineralized cartilage, and primary osteons that have filled in the intertrabecular spaces. Secondary osteons are scarce, denoting little remodeling in antlers, which can be related to their short lifespan. The occurrence of cement lines around primary osteons indicates resorption on the trabecular scaffold prior to infilling of the intertrabecular spaces. The outer cortex showed a higher autofluorescence and a more immature structure than the main cortex, suggesting that it was secondarily formed by periosteal activity. Pedicles and antlers constitute a functional entity, and future histological and/or biomechanical studies should therefore consider both components of the cranial appendages.

Isolation and characterization of antler-derived multipotent stem cells

Recent studies have reported that stem cells can be isolated from various tissues such as bone marrow, fatty tissue, umbilical cord blood, Wharton's jelly, and placenta. These types of stem cell studies have also arisen in veterinary medicine. Deer antlers show a seasonal regrowth of tissue, an unusual feature in mammals. Antler tissue therefore might offer a source of stem cells. To explore the possibility of stem cell populations within deer antlers, we isolated and successfully cultured antler-derived multipotent stem cells (MSCs). Antler MSCs were maintained in a growth medium, and the proliferation potential was measured via an assay called the cumulative population doubling level. Immunophenotyping and immunostaining revealed the intrinsic characteristic stem cell markers of antler MSCs. To confirm the ability to differentiate, we conducted osteogenic, adipogenic, and chondrogenic induction under the respective differentiation conditions. We discovered that antler MSCs have the ability to differentiate into multiple lineages. In conclusion, our results show that deer antler tissue may contain MSCs and therefore may be a potential source for veterinary regenerative therapeutics.

Labeling studies on cortical bone formation in the antlers of red deer (Cervus elaphus)

The formation and mineralization process of antlers, which constitute the fastest growing bones in vertebrates, is still not fully understood. We used oxytetracycline injections to label different stages of bone formation in antlers of 14 red deer between days 28 and 156 of antler growth. Results show that initially a trabecular scaffold of woven bone is formed which largely replaces a pre-existing scaffold of mineralized cartilage. Lamellar bone is then deposited and from about day 70 onwards, primary osteons fill in the longitudinal tubes lined by the scaffold in a proximal to distal sequence. Mineral apposition rate (MAR) in early stages of primary osteon formation is very high (average 2.15 μm/d). Lower MARs were recorded for later stages of primary osteon formation (1.56 μm/d) and for the smaller secondary osteons (0.89 μm/d). Results suggest a peak in mineral demand around day 100 when the extent of mineralizing surfaces is maximal. A few secondary osteons were formed in a process of antler modeling rather than remodeling, as it occurred simultaneously with formation of primary osteons. The degree of cortical porosity reflects a reduction in MAR during later stages of osteonal growth, whereas cortical thickness is determined earlier. Injections given when the antlers were largely or completely clean from velvet produced no labels in antler bone, strongly suggesting that antlers are dead after velvet shedding. The rapidity of antler mineralization and the short lifespan of antlers make them an extraordinary model to assess the effects of chemicals impairing or promoting bone mineralization.

Evolution of ruminant headgear: a review

The horns, ossicones and antlers of ruminants are familiar and diverse examples of cranial appendages. We collectively term ruminant cranial appendages 'headgear'; this includes four extant forms: antlers (in cervids), horns (in bovids), pronghorns (in pronghorn antelope) and ossicones (in giraffids). Headgear evolution remains an open and intriguing question because phylogenies (molecular and morphological), adult headgear structure and headgear development (where data are available) all suggest different pictures of ruminant evolution. We discuss what is known about the evolution of headgear, including the evidence motivating previous hypotheses of single versus multiple origins, and the implications of recent phylogenetic revisions for these hypotheses. Inclusion of developmental data is critical for progress on the question of headgear evolution, and we synthesize the scattered literature on this front. The areas most in need of attention are early development in general; pronghorn and ossicone development in particular; and histological study of fossil forms of headgear. An integrative study of headgear development and evolution may have ramifications beyond the fields of systematics and evolution. Researchers in organismal biology, as well as those in biomedical fields investigating skin, bone and regenerative medicine, may all benefit from insights produced by this line of research.

Effect of different factors on proliferation of antler cells, cultured in vitro

Antlers as a potential model for bone growth and development have become an object of rising interest. To elucidate processes explaining how antler growth is regulated, in vitro cultures have been established. However, until now, there has been no standard method to cultivate antler cells and in vitro results are often opposite to those reported in vivo. In addition, many factors which are often not taken into account under in vitro conditions may play an important role in the development of antler cells. In this study we investigated the effects of the antler growth stage, the male individuality, passaged versus primary cultures and the effect of foetal calf serum concentrations on proliferative potential of mixed antler cell cultures in vitro, derived from regenerating antlers of red deer males (Cervus elaphus). The proliferation potential of antler cells was measured by incorporation of (3)H thymidine. Our results demonstrate that there is no significant effect of the antler growth stage, whereas male individuality and all other examined factors significantly affected antler cell proliferation. Furthermore, our results suggest that primary cultures may better represent in vivo conditions and processes occurring in regenerating antlers. In conclusion, before all main factors affecting antler cell proliferation in vitro will be satisfactorily investigated, results of in vitro studies focused on hormonal regulation of antler growth should be taken with extreme caution.

Iodine distribution in the environment as a limiting factor for roe deer antler development

The iodine-containing hormones produced by the thyroid gland play a role in the complex neuro-hormonal regulation of antler development. The proper function of the thyroid depends on the adequate iodine supply of the organism, which is directly related to the iodine content of food and drinking water. The purpose of this study was to explore the connection between the iodine content of the water base, which has a strong correlation with the iodine concentration of environmental components available to animals, and the antler weight of roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) shot in Hungarian hunting areas. Using a general linear model, controlling for the collective effects of other environmental factors (deer population density, harvest rate, land use, and soil fertility information), the iodine content of the water base explained 51.4% of the total variance of antler weights. The results suggest that antler weights increase with increasing iodine concentration regardless of other factors; thus, the environmental iodine distribution can be a limiting factor suppressing roe deer performance assessed here as antler weight. Further experimental studies of controlled iodine uptake are needed to define the exact physiological iodine requirements of roe deer bucks.

Evidence for articular cartilage regeneration in MRL/MpJ mice

OBJECTIVE

A major clinical problem in Orthopaedics is the repair of traumatic articular cartilage lesions. The MRL/MpJ strain of mice has the remarkable ability to regenerate ear hole punch wounds seamlessly including the scarless replacement of multiple tissues. The objective of this study was to assess whether articular cartilage defects repair or regenerate in the MRL/MpJ 'healer' strain of mice.

METHOD

Full thickness and partial thickness lesions were introduced into trochlear groove articular cartilage of MRL/MpJ and C57Bl/6 mice, a control strain that does not undergo ear hole regeneration. The wound sites were assessed 6 weeks and 12 weeks post-surgery using a histological scoring scheme and immunohistochemistry for markers of articular cartilage including proteoglycan, collagen II and collagen VI.

RESULTS

The partial thickness lesions did not repair in either strain. However, at both 6 weeks and 12 weeks timepoints the MRL/MpJ mice had a superior healing response of full thickness lesions with abundant chondrocytes and an extracellular matrix rich in proteoglycan, collagen II and collagen VI at the wound site. At the 12 week timepoint the enhanced cartilage healing was restricted to male MRL/MpJ mice. In contrast, the C57Bl/6 control strain produced an extracellular matrix at the wound site that, overall, had significantly less matrix proteoglycan and collagen II.

CONCLUSIONS

Male MRL/MpJ mice appear to possess an intrinsic ability to 'regenerate' articular cartilage. Understanding the biochemical and genetic basis for articular cartilage regeneration may open up new treatment options for traumatic articular cartilage defects.

Localization and characterization of STRO-1 cells in the deer pedicle and regenerating antler

The annual regeneration of deer antlers is a unique developmental event in mammals, which as a rule possess only a very limited capacity to regenerate lost appendages. Studying antler regeneration can therefore provide a deeper insight into the mechanisms that prevent limb regeneration in humans and other mammals, and, with regard to medical treatments, may possibly even show ways how to overcome these limitations. Traditionally, antler regeneration has been characterized as a process involving the formation of a blastema from de-differentiated cells. More recently it has, however, been hypothesized that antler regeneration is a stem cell-based process. Thus far, direct evidence for the presence of stem cells in primary or regenerating antlers was lacking. Here we demonstrate the presence of cells positive for the mesenchymal stem cell marker STRO-1 in the chondrogenic growth zone and the perivascular tissue of the cartilaginous zone in primary and regenerating antlers as well as in the pedicle of fallow deer (Dama dama). In addition, cells positive for the stem cell/progenitor cell markers STRO-1, CD133 and CD271 (LNGFR) were isolated from the growth zones of regenerating fallow deer antlers as well as the pedicle periosteum and cultivated for extended periods of time. We found evidence that STRO-1(+) cells isolated from the different locations are able to differentiate in vitro along the osteogenic and adipogenic lineages. Our results support the view that the annual process of antler regeneration might depend on the periodic activation of mesenchymal progenitor cells located in the pedicle periosteum. The findings of the present study indicate that not only limited tissue regeneration, but also extensive appendage regeneration in a postnatal mammal can occur as a stem cell-based process.

Expression and localization of insulin-like growth factor-I in four parts of the red deer antler

The expression and localization of insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) in the four parts (tip, upper, mid and base) of the red deer antler has been extensively investigated. We used reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and real-time reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (real time RT-PCR), in situ hybridization, immunohistochemistry and Western blot techniques to localize IGF-I messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) and IGF-I peptide in the four parts of the antler. The specific sequence encoding IGF-I was detected by RT-PCR in all of the four specimens, and the 395 bp IGF-I sequence from the red deer antler was shown to have very high homology with human, goat and mouse IGF-I. In situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry results demonstrated that the expression of IGF-I occurred in chondrocytes and osteoblasts in the tip and upper parts of the antler. However, IGF-I was only detectable in osteoblasts around the bone in the mid and base parts. There were significant differences in the intensity of the signal obtained with the IGF-I probe in the tip, upper, mid and base tissues. The Western blot analysis also provided evidence that IGF-I expression was localized differentially in the four parts of the deer antler. This study indicates that antler tissue is an essential part of the IGF system, which is involved in the regulation of the growth of red deer antlers. The specific expression of IGF-I in the four parts of the deer antler suggests that the IGF-I molecule is present at significantly different levels throughout the deer antler development and regeneration processes. Localization of IGF-I in chondrocytes and osteoblasts suggests that IGF-I may play an important role in cartilage and bone formation. In addition, it may have a variety of biophysical effects that influence the rapid growth of deer antlers.

Progress and potential for regenerative medicine

Regenerative medicine focuses on new therapies to replace or restore lost, damaged, or aging cells in the human body to restore function. This goal is being realized by collaborative efforts in nonmammalian and human development, stem cell biology, genetics, materials science, bioengineering, and tissue engineering. At present, understanding existing reparative processes in humans and exploring the latent ability to regenerate tissue remains the focus in this field. This review covers recent work in limb regeneration, fetal wound healing, stem cell biology, somatic nuclear transfer, and tissue engineering as a foundation for developing new clinical therapies to augment and stimulate human regeneration.

Nature's answer to breaching the skin barrier: an innovative development for amputees

The human body has evolved to maintain homeostasis through the covering of skin and mucous membranes, which separate the internal environment from the harsh and variable external milieu. Few structures naturally penetrate these coverings, and teeth are the only exception in human beings. Attempts to breach these barriers, to develop skin- penetrating, bone-anchored amputation prostheses, can lead to opportunist invasion by microorganisms and subsequent infection, which can jeopardize the life of the individual. There are only a few fascinating examples where the integument of other species is interrupted without such dire consequences, and the deer antler is one such case. Deer antlers are cephalic bony appendages arising from the frontal bones of the skull of the males of most deer species, and are true transient skin-penetrating structures. Antlers are subject to extreme loading during the rutting season and yet the skin-bone barrier remains intact. Here we show how deer antlers can be used as natural analogues for the successful development of specialized orthopaedic amputation prosthetics. We have used quantitative and qualitative findings from a study of the morphology of deer antlers to develop a device that mimics their structure, which creates a tight seal between the implant and the host tissues, for use in amputation prosthetics.

Cell Cycle Genes PEDF and CDKN1C in Growing Deer Antlers

Deer antlers are the only mammalian appendage to display an annual cycle of full regeneration. The growth phase in antler involves the rapid proliferation of several tissues types, including epidermis, dermis, cartilage, bone, blood vessels, and nerves. Antlers thus provide an excellent model to study the developmental regulation of these tissues. We describe here the identification of two genes, pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) and cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 1C (CDKN1C), both of which are known to be involved in cell proliferation and differentiation. These genes were identified as the result of screening an expressed sequence tag database derived from a cDNA library enriched for sequences from the growing antler tip. PEDF mRNA was detected in developing skin, cartilage, and bone during endochondral ossification. PEDF mRNA was not detected within endothelial cells that exhibited positive immunoreactivity to a CD146 antibody. CDKN1C mRNA was expressed by only the immature chondrocytes within the precartilage region. These results suggested that PEDF and CDKN1C are important genes involved in cell proliferation and differentiation during antler growth.

Deer antler regeneration: Cells, concepts, and controversies

The periodic replacement of antlers is an exceptional regenerative process in mammals, which in general are unable to regenerate complete body appendages. Antler regeneration has traditionally been viewed as an epimorphic process closely resembling limb regeneration in urodele amphibians, and the terminology of the latter process has also been applied to antler regeneration. More recent studies, however, showed that, unlike urodele limb regeneration, antler regeneration does not involve cell dedifferentiation and the formation of a blastema from these dedifferentiated cells. Rather, these studies suggest that antler regeneration is a stem-cell-based process that depends on the periodic activation of, presumably neural-crest-derived, periosteal stem cells of the distal pedicle. The evidence for this hypothesis is reviewed and as a result, a new concept of antler regeneration as a process of stem-cell-based epimorphic regeneration is proposed that does not involve cell dedifferentiation or transdifferentiation. Antler regeneration illustrates that extensive appendage regeneration in a postnatal mammal can be achieved by a developmental process that differs in several fundamental aspects from limb regeneration in urodeles.

Identification of key tissue type for antler regeneration through pedicle periosteum deletion

Epimorphic regeneration is the "holy grail" of regenerative medicine. Research aimed at investigating the various models of epimorphic regeneration is essential if a fundamental understanding of the factors underpinning this process are to be established. Deer antlers are the only mammalian appendages that are subject to an annual cycle of epimorphic regeneration. In our previous studies, we have reported that histogenesis of antler regeneration relies on cells resident within the pedicle periosteum (PP). The present study elaborates this finding by means of functional studies involving the deletion of PP. Four yearling and four 2-year-old stags were selected for total PP deletion or partial PP deletion experiments. Of the animals in the total PP deletion group, one showed no signs of antler regeneration throughout the antler growth season. Two showed substantial and one showed marginal delays in antler regeneration (at 34, 20 and 7 days, respectively) compared with the corresponding sham-operated sides. Histological investigation revealed that the delayed antlers were derived from regenerated PP. Unexpectedly, the regenerative capacity of the antler from the total periosteum-deleted pedicles depended on antler length at surgery. Of the four deer that had partial PP deletion, two regenerated antlers exclusively from the left-over PP on the pedicle shafts in the absence of participation from the pedicle bone proper. The combined results from the PP deletion experiments convincingly demonstrate that the cells of the PP are responsible for antler regeneration.