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Boehm JT, Waldman J, Robinson JD, Hickerson MJ. Population genomics reveals seahorses (Hippocampus erectus) of the western mid-Atlantic coast to be residents rather than vagrants. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0116219. [PMID: 25629166 PMCID: PMC4309581 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0116219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2014] [Accepted: 10/20/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding population structure and areas of demographic persistence and transients is critical for effective species management. However, direct observational evidence to address the geographic scale and delineation of ephemeral or persistent populations for many marine fishes is limited. The Lined seahorse (Hippocampus erectus) can be commonly found in three western Atlantic zoogeographic provinces, though inhabitants of the temperate northern Virginia Province are often considered tropical vagrants that only arrive during warm seasons from the southern provinces and perish as temperatures decline. Although genetics can locate regions of historical population persistence and isolation, previous evidence of Virginia Province persistence is only provisional due to limited genetic sampling (i.e., mitochondrial DNA and five nuclear loci). To test alternative hypotheses of historical persistence versus the ephemerality of a northern Virginia Province population we used a RADseq generated dataset consisting of 11,708 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) sampled from individuals collected from the eastern Gulf of Mexico to Long Island, NY. Concordant results from genomic analyses all infer three genetically divergent subpopulations, and strongly support Virginia Province inhabitants as a genetically diverged and a historically persistent ancestral gene pool. These results suggest that individuals that emerge in coastal areas during the warm season can be considered "local" and supports offshore migration during the colder months. This research demonstrates how a large number of genes sampled across a geographical range can capture the diversity of coalescent histories (across loci) while inferring population history. Moreover, these results clearly demonstrate the utility of population genomic data to infer peripheral subpopulation persistence in difficult-to-observe species.
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Affiliation(s)
- J. T. Boehm
- Department of Biology, City College of New York, 160 Convent Ave., New York, New York, 10031, United States of America
- Subprogram in Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, The Graduate Center of the City University of New York, 365 5 Ave, New York, New York, 10016, United States of America
| | - John Waldman
- Biology Department, Queens College, City University of New York, 65-30 Kissena Blvd., Queens, New York, 11367-1597, United States of America
- Subprogram in Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, The Graduate Center of the City University of New York, 365 5 Ave, New York, New York, 10016, United States of America
| | - John D. Robinson
- South Carolina Department of Natural Resources, Marine Resources Research Institute, 217 Fort Johnson Rd., Charleston, South Carolina, 29412, United States of America
| | - Michael J. Hickerson
- Department of Biology, City College of New York, 160 Convent Ave., New York, New York, 10031, United States of America
- Subprogram in Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, The Graduate Center of the City University of New York, 365 5 Ave, New York, New York, 10016, United States of America
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Hemmer-Hansen J, Therkildsen NO, Pujolar JM. Population genomics of marine fishes: next-generation prospects and challenges. THE BIOLOGICAL BULLETIN 2014; 227:117-132. [PMID: 25411371 DOI: 10.1086/bblv227n2p117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Over the past few years, technological advances have facilitated giant leaps forward in our ability to generate genome-wide molecular data, offering exciting opportunities for gaining new insights into the ecology and evolution of species where genomic information is still limited. Marine fishes are valuable organisms for advancing our understanding of evolution on historical and contemporary time scales, and here we highlight areas in which research on these species is likely to be particularly important in the near future. These include possibilities for gaining insights into processes on ecological time scales, identifying genomic signatures associated with population divergence under gene flow, and determining the genetic basis of phenotypic traits. We also consider future challenges pertaining to the implementation of genome-wide coverage through next-generation sequencing and genotyping methods in marine fishes. Complications associated with fast decay of linkage disequilibrium, as expected for species with large effective population sizes, and the possibility that adaptation is associated with both soft selective sweeps and polygenic selection, leaving complex genomic signatures in natural populations, are likely to challenge future studies. However, the combination of high genome coverage and new statistical developments offers promising solutions. Thus, the next generation of studies is likely to truly facilitate the transition from population genetics to population genomics in marine fishes. This transition will advance our understanding of basic evolutionary processes and will offer new possibilities for conservation and management of valuable marine resources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jakob Hemmer-Hansen
- Section for Marine Living Resources, National Institute of Aquatic Resources, Technical University of Denmark, Vejlsøvej 39, DK-8600 Silkeborg, Denmark;
| | | | - José Martin Pujolar
- Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, Ny Munkegade 114, DK-8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
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Dyer LA, Parchman TL, Jeffrey CS, Richards LA. New dimensions of tropical diversity: an inordinate fondness for insect molecules, taxa, and trophic interactions. CURRENT OPINION IN INSECT SCIENCE 2014; 2:14-19. [PMID: 32846719 DOI: 10.1016/j.cois.2014.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2014] [Revised: 05/29/2014] [Accepted: 06/09/2014] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Most known insect species are involved in chemically mediated plant-insect multi-trophic interactions, and recent syntheses point to a substantial gap in our understanding of trophic interaction diversity, especially in the tropics. One approach to filling this gap is to examine relationships between genomic, metabolomic, taxonomic, and trophic interaction diversity via quantifying and comparing these dimensions of biodiversity at multiple scales. Innovative approaches to research on the origins and maintenance of tropical insect diversity should merge traditional approaches to natural history and taxonomy with modern measures of interaction diversity, genetic variation, and phytochemical diversity. These approaches will elucidate relationships between plant chemistry, specialization, climate, and different dimensions of biodiversity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lee A Dyer
- Ecology Evolution and Conservation Biology, University of Nevada Reno, Reno, NV 89557, United States.
| | - Thomas L Parchman
- Ecology Evolution and Conservation Biology, University of Nevada Reno, Reno, NV 89557, United States
| | - Christopher S Jeffrey
- Ecology Evolution and Conservation Biology, University of Nevada Reno, Reno, NV 89557, United States
| | - Lora A Richards
- Ecology Evolution and Conservation Biology, University of Nevada Reno, Reno, NV 89557, United States
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55
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Thinking outside the barrier: neutral and adaptive divergence in Indo-Pacific coral reef faunas. Evol Ecol 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s10682-014-9724-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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56
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D'Aloia CC, Bogdanowicz SM, Harrison RG, Buston PM. Seascape continuity plays an important role in determining patterns of spatial genetic structure in a coral reef fish. Mol Ecol 2014; 23:2902-13. [PMID: 24803419 DOI: 10.1111/mec.12782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2014] [Revised: 04/25/2014] [Accepted: 04/29/2014] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Detecting patterns of spatial genetic structure (SGS) can help identify intrinsic and extrinsic barriers to gene flow within metapopulations. For marine organisms such as coral reef fishes, identifying these barriers is critical to predicting evolutionary dynamics and demarcating evolutionarily significant units for conservation. In this study, we adopted an alternative hypothesis-testing framework to identify the patterns and predictors of SGS in the Caribbean reef fish Elacatinus lori. First, genetic structure was estimated using nuclear microsatellites and mitochondrial cytochrome b sequences. Next, clustering and network analyses were applied to visualize patterns of SGS. Finally, logistic regressions and linear mixed models were used to identify the predictors of SGS. Both sets of markers revealed low global structure: mitochondrial ΦST=0.12, microsatellite FST=0.0056. However, there was high variability among pairwise estimates, ranging from no differentiation between sites on contiguous reef (ΦST=0) to strong differentiation between sites separated by ocean expanses≥20 km (maximum ΦST=0.65). Genetic clustering and statistical analyses provided additional support for the hypothesis that seascape discontinuity, represented by oceanic breaks between patches of reef habitat, is a key predictor of SGS in E. lori. Notably, the estimated patterns and predictors of SGS were consistent between both sets of markers. Combined with previous studies of dispersal in E. lori, these results suggest that the interaction between seascape continuity and the dispersal kernel plays an important role in determining genetic connectivity within metapopulations.
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Affiliation(s)
- C C D'Aloia
- Department of Biology and Marine Program, Boston University, 5 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA, 02215, USA
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57
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Anderson EC, Skaug HJ, Barshis DJ. Next-generation sequencing for molecular ecology: a caveat regarding pooled samples. Mol Ecol 2014; 23:502-12. [PMID: 24304095 DOI: 10.1111/mec.12609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2013] [Revised: 11/14/2013] [Accepted: 11/24/2013] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
We develop a model based on the Dirichlet-compound multinomial distribution (CMD) and Ewens sampling formula to predict the fraction of SNP loci that will appear fixed for alternate alleles between two pooled samples drawn from the same underlying population. We apply this model to next-generation sequencing (NGS) data from Baltic Sea herring recently published by (Corander et al., 2013, Molecular Ecology, 2931-2940), and show that there are many more fixed loci than expected in the absence of genetic structure. However, we show through coalescent simulations that the degree of population structure required to explain the fraction of alternatively fixed SNPs is extraordinarily high and that the surplus of fixed loci is more likely a consequence of limited representation of individual gene copies in the pooled samples, than it is of population structure. Our analysis signals that the use of NGS on pooled samples to identify divergent SNPs warrants caution. With pooled samples, it is hard to diagnose when an NGS experiment has gone awry; especially when NGS data on pooled samples are of low read depth with a limited number of individuals, it may be worthwhile to temper claims of unexpected population differentiation from pooled samples, pending verification with more reliable methods or stricter adherence to recommended sampling designs for pooled sequencing e.g. Futschik & Schlötterer 2010, Genetics, 186, 207; Gautier et al., 2013a, Molecular Ecology, 3766-3779). Analysis of the data and diagnosis of problems is easier and more reliable (and can be less costly) with individually barcoded samples. Consequently, for some scenarios, individual barcoding may be preferable to pooling of samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric C Anderson
- Fisheries Ecology Division, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, 110 Shaffer Road, Santa Cruz, CA, 95060, USA; Department of Applied Math and Statistics (SOE2), University of California, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA, 95064, USA
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58
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Chuluunbat B, Charruau P, Silbermayr K, Khorloojav T, Burger PA. Genetic diversity and population structure of Mongolian domestic Bactrian camels (Camelus bactrianus). Anim Genet 2014; 45:550-8. [PMID: 24749721 PMCID: PMC4171754 DOI: 10.1111/age.12158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/24/2014] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
The tradition of animal husbandry in the context of a nomadic lifestyle has been of great significance in the Mongolian society. Both Bactrian camels and horses have been invaluable for the survival and development of human activities in the harsh arid environment of the Mongolian steppe. As camels offer unique and sustainable opportunities for livestock production in marginal agro-ecological zones, we investigated the current genetic diversity of three local Mongolian camel breeds and compared their levels of variation with common native Mongolian camels distributed throughout the country. Based on mitochondrial and nuclear markers, we found levels of genetic diversity in Mongolian populations similar to that reported for Chinese Bactrian camels and for dromedaries. Little differentiation was detected between single breeds, except for a small group originating from the northwestern Mongolian Altai. We found neither high inbreeding levels in the different breeds nor evidence for a population decline. Although the Mongolian camel census size has severely declined over the past 20 years, our analyses suggest that there still exists a stable population with adequate genetic variation for continued sustainable utilization.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Chuluunbat
- Genetics laboratory of Institute Biology, Mongolian Academy of Sciences, Peace avenue-54b, Ulaanbaatar, 210351, Mongolia
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59
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Hamilton PB, Nicol E, De-Bastos ESR, Williams RJ, Sumpter JP, Jobling S, Stevens JR, Tyler CR. Populations of a cyprinid fish are self-sustaining despite widespread feminization of males. BMC Biol 2014; 12:1. [PMID: 24417977 PMCID: PMC3922797 DOI: 10.1186/1741-7007-12-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2013] [Accepted: 12/20/2013] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Treated effluents from wastewater treatment works can comprise a large proportion of the flow of rivers in the developed world. Exposure to these effluents, or the steroidal estrogens they contain, feminizes wild male fish and can reduce their reproductive fitness. Long-term experimental exposures have resulted in skewed sex ratios, reproductive failures in breeding colonies, and population collapse. This suggests that environmental estrogens could threaten the sustainability of wild fish populations. RESULTS Here we tested this hypothesis by examining population genetic structures and effective population sizes (N(e)) of wild roach (Rutilus rutilus L.) living in English rivers contaminated with estrogenic effluents. N(e) was estimated from DNA microsatellite genotypes using approximate Bayesian computation and sibling assignment methods. We found no significant negative correlation between N(e) and the predicted estrogen exposure at 28 sample sites. Furthermore, examination of the population genetic structure of roach in the region showed that some populations have been confined to stretches of river with a high proportion of estrogenic effluent for multiple generations and have survived, apparently without reliance on immigration of fish from less polluted sites. CONCLUSIONS These results demonstrate that roach populations living in some effluent-contaminated river stretches, where feminization is widespread, are self-sustaining. Although we found no evidence to suggest that exposure to estrogenic effluents is a significant driving factor in determining the size of roach breeding populations, a reduction in N(e) of up to 65% is still possible for the most contaminated sites because of the wide confidence intervals associated with the statistical model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick B Hamilton
- Biosciences, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter EX4 4QD, UK
| | - Elizabeth Nicol
- Institute for the Environment, Brunel University, Uxbridge, Middlesex UB8 3PH, UK
| | - Eliane SR De-Bastos
- Biosciences, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter EX4 4QD, UK
| | | | - John P Sumpter
- Institute for the Environment, Brunel University, Uxbridge, Middlesex UB8 3PH, UK
| | - Susan Jobling
- Institute for the Environment, Brunel University, Uxbridge, Middlesex UB8 3PH, UK
| | - Jamie R Stevens
- Biosciences, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter EX4 4QD, UK
| | - Charles R Tyler
- Biosciences, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter EX4 4QD, UK
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60
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Rieseberg L, Vines T, Gow J, Kane N. Molecular Ecology continues to perform well according to the major publication metrics. Introduction. Mol Ecol 2014; 23:1-15. [PMID: 24372750 DOI: 10.1111/mec.12586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2013] [Accepted: 11/06/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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61
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Defaveri J, Shikano T, Shimada Y, Merilä J. High degree of genetic differentiation in marine three-spined sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus). Mol Ecol 2013; 22:4811-28. [PMID: 23947683 DOI: 10.1111/mec.12430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2012] [Revised: 06/11/2013] [Accepted: 06/18/2013] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Populations of widespread marine organisms are typically characterized by a low degree of genetic differentiation in neutral genetic markers, but much less is known about differentiation in genes whose functional roles are associated with specific selection regimes. To uncover possible adaptive population divergence and heterogeneous genomic differentiation in marine three-spined sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus), we used a candidate gene-based genome-scan approach to analyse variability in 138 microsatellite loci located within/close to (<6 kb) functionally important genes in samples collected from ten geographic locations. The degree of genetic differentiation in markers classified as neutral or under balancing selection-as determined with several outlier detection methods-was low (F(ST) = 0.033 or 0.011, respectively), whereas average FST for directionally selected markers was significantly higher (F(ST) = 0.097). Clustering analyses provided support for genomic and geographic heterogeneity in selection: six genetic clusters were identified based on allele frequency differences in the directionally selected loci, whereas four were identified with the neutral loci. Allelic variation in several loci exhibited significant associations with environmental variables, supporting the conjecture that temperature and salinity, but not optic conditions, are important drivers of adaptive divergence among populations. In general, these results suggest that in spite of the high degree of physical connectivity and gene flow as inferred from neutral marker genes, marine stickleback populations are strongly genetically structured in loci associated with functionally relevant genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacquelin Defaveri
- Ecological Genetics Research Unit, Department of Biosciences, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 65, FI-00014, Helsinki, Finland
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62
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DeFaveri J, Merilä J. Evidence for adaptive phenotypic differentiation in Baltic Sea sticklebacks. J Evol Biol 2013; 26:1700-15. [DOI: 10.1111/jeb.12168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2013] [Revised: 03/26/2013] [Accepted: 03/27/2013] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- J. DeFaveri
- Ecological Genetics Research Unit; Department of Biosciences; University of Helsinki; Helsinki Finland
| | - J. Merilä
- Ecological Genetics Research Unit; Department of Biosciences; University of Helsinki; Helsinki Finland
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63
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Narum SR, Buerkle CA, Davey JW, Miller MR, Hohenlohe PA. Genotyping-by-sequencing in ecological and conservation genomics. Mol Ecol 2013; 22:2841-7. [PMID: 23711105 DOI: 10.1111/mec.12350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 343] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2013] [Revised: 04/09/2013] [Accepted: 04/10/2013] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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64
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Teacher AG, André C, Jonsson PR, Merilä J. Oceanographic connectivity and environmental correlates of genetic structuring in Atlantic herring in the Baltic Sea. Evol Appl 2013; 6:549-67. [PMID: 23745145 PMCID: PMC3673481 DOI: 10.1111/eva.12042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2012] [Accepted: 11/27/2012] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Marine fish often show little genetic structuring in neutral marker genes, and Atlantic herring (Clupea harengus) in the Baltic Sea are no exception; historically, very low levels of population differentiation (F ST ≍ 0.002) have been found, despite a high degree of interpopulation environmental heterogeneity in salinity and temperature. Recent exome sequencing and SNP studies have however shown that many loci are under selection in this system. Here, we combined population genetic analyses of a large number of transcriptome-derived microsatellite markers with oceanographic modelling to investigate genetic differentiation and connectivity in Atlantic herring at a relatively fine scale within the Baltic Sea. We found evidence for weak but robust and significant genetic structuring (F ST = 0.008) explainable by oceanographic connectivity. Genetic differentiation was also associated with site differences in temperature and salinity, with the result driven by the locus Her14 which appears to be under directional selection (F ST = 0.08). The results show that Baltic herring are genetically structured within the Baltic Sea, and highlight the role of oceanography and environmental factors in explaining this structuring. The results also have implications for the management of herring fisheries, the most economically important fishery in the Baltic Sea, suggesting that the current fisheries management units may be in need of revision.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amber Gf Teacher
- Department of Biosciences, University of Helsinki Helsinki, Finland ; Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter Cornwall, UK
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65
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Merilä J. Nine-spined stickleback (Pungitius pungitius): an emerging model for evolutionary biology research. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2013; 1289:18-35. [DOI: 10.1111/nyas.12089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Juha Merilä
- Ecological Genetics Research Unit, Department of Biosciences; University of Helsinki; Helsinki; Finland
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66
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Richards PM, Liu MM, Lowe N, Davey JW, Blaxter ML, Davison A. RAD-Seq derived markers flank the shell colour and banding loci of the Cepaea nemoralis supergene. Mol Ecol 2013; 22:3077-89. [PMID: 23496771 PMCID: PMC3712483 DOI: 10.1111/mec.12262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2012] [Revised: 01/11/2013] [Accepted: 01/15/2013] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Studies on the classic shell colour and banding polymorphism of the land snail Cepaea played a crucial role in establishing the importance of natural selection in maintaining morphological variation. Cepaea is also a pre-eminent model for ecological genetics because the outward colour and banding phenotype is entirely genetically determined, primarily by a 'supergene' of at least five loci. Unfortunately, progress in understanding the evolution and maintenance of the Cepaea polymorphism stalled, partly because of a lack of genetic markers. With a view to re-establish Cepaea as a prominent model of molecular ecology, we made six laboratory crosses of Cepaea nemoralis, five of which segregated for shell ground colour (C) and the presence or absence of bands (B). First, scoring of colour and banding in 323 individuals found no recombination between the C and B loci of the supergene. Second, using restriction site-associated DNA sequencing (RAD-Seq) of two parents and 22 offspring, we identified 44 anonymous markers putatively linked to the colour (C) and banding (B) loci. The genotype of eleven of the most promising RAD-Seq markers was independently validated in the same 22 offspring, then up to a further 146 offspring were genotyped. The closest RAD-Seq markers scored are within ~0.6 centimorgan (cM) of the C-B supergene linkage group, with the combined loci together forming a 35.8 cM linkage map of markers that flank both sides of the Cepaea C-B supergene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul M Richards
- Centre for Genetics and Genomics, School of Biology, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK
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