Calcium-activated chloride current in cultured sensory and parasympathetic quail neurones

Mechanical transduction by membrane ion channels: a mini review

There are ion channels in the cell membrane that are sensitive to stress in the membrane cytoskeleton. Some channels turn on with stress, others turn off. In specialized receptors such as those involved in hearing, touch, etc. the role of the channels is clear. However, virtually all cells have these channels, and we don't yet know the physiological role of the channels although it is reasonable to suppose that they are involved in the control of cell size, either acutely as in volume regulation, or trophically as in the control of cell division.

Endothelin modulates calcium channel current in neurones of rabbit pelvic parasympathetic ganglia

1. The effects of endothelin were studied, in vitro, on neurones contained in the rabbit vesical pelvic ganglion by use of intracellular and single-electrode voltage clamp techniques under conditions where sodium and potassium channels were blocked. 2. In the current-clamp experiments, endothelin (1 microM) caused a depolarization followed by a hyperpolarization of the membrane potential. In the voltage-clamp experiments, endothelin (0.01-1 microM) caused an inward current followed by an outward current in a concentration-dependent manner. 3. Membrane conductance was increased during the endothelin-induced depolarization and inward current. Membrane conductance was decreased during the endothelin-induced hyperpolarization and outward current. 4. The endothelin-induced inward and outward currents were not altered by lowering external sodium concentration or raising external potassium concentration. 5. The endothelin-induced inward current was depressed (mean 72%) in a Krebs solution containing nominally zero calcium and high magnesium. These results suggest that a predominent component of the endothelin-induced inward current is mediated by calcium ions. 6. The calcium-insensitive component of the inward current was abolished by a chloride channel blocker, 4-acetamide-4'-isothiocyanostilbene-2,2'-disulphonic acid. The mean reversal potential for the calcium-insensitive component of the inward current was -18 mV. This value is near the equilibrium potential for chloride. Thus, it is presumed that the calcium-insensitive component of the inward current is carried by chloride ions. 7. Endothelin caused an initial depression followed by a long lasting facilitation of both rapidly and slowly decaying components of high-threshold calcium channel currents (N- and L-type). 8. In summary, the data show that for neurones in the vesical pelvic ganglia, endothelin causes membrane depolarization and activates an inward current. The ionic mechanisms involve receptor-operated calcium and chloride currents. Also, endothelin causes an initial depression followed by a long-lasting facilitation of the voltage-dependent calcium current.

Whole cell current analyses of pancreatic acinar AR42J cells. I. Voltage- and Ca(2+)-activated currents

Voltage- and Ca(2+)-activated whole cell currents were studied in AR42J cells, a clonal cell line derived from rat pancreatic acinar cells, using a patch electrode voltage-clamp technique. Four kinds of ionic currents were identified by their ionic dependencies, pharmacological properties, and kinetic parameters: 1) an outward current flow due mainly to a voltage-dependent K(+)-conductance increase, 2) an initial transient inward current due to an Na(+)-conductance increase, 3) transient and long-duration inward current due to a Ca(2+)-conductance increase, and 4) a slowly activating inward current that persists over the duration of the depolarizing pulse and deactivates slowly upon repolarization, producing a slow inward tail current. The slow inward tail current was particularly robust and was interpreted as due to a Ca(2+)-activated Cl(-)-conductance increase, since 1) the generation of this current was blocked by removing the extracellular Ca2+, applying Ca(2+)-channel blockers (Cd2+, nifedipine), or by lowering the intracellular Ca2+ concentration [( Ca2+]i) with EGTA; and 2) the reversal potential (Erev) of the slow inward tail current was close to 0 mV in the control condition (152 mM [Cl-]o/154 mM [Cl-]i), and changes of the [Cl-]o/[Cl )i ratio shifted the Erev toward the predicted Cl- equilibrium potential.

Potassium and chloride conductances in rat Leydig cells: effects of gonadotrophins and cyclic adenosine monophosphate

1. The effects of gonadotrophins (luteinizing hormone and human chorionic gonadotrophin) and cyclic AMP on ionic conductances were investigated using the tight-seal whole-cell recording technique in Leydig cells freshly isolated from nature rat testis by enzymatic treatment. 2. In resting cells, the predominant ionic conductance is a voltage-dependent K+ conductance resembling the delayed rectifier K+ conductance of T-lymphocytes. This conductance is characterized by: (1) a time-dependent inactivation for potentials more positive than +20 mV, (2) a reversal potential near -65 mV, (3) a sensitivity to intracellular Cs+, and (4) a sensitivity to extracellular TEA and 4-aminopyridine. 3. A Cl- conductance is also present resembling the Cl- background conductance in squid axons and heart cells. In resting cells, this conductance contributes only a small component of the total outward current obtained with depolarizing pulses. 4. Gonadotrophins (human chorionic gonadotrophin, porcine luteinizing hormone and ovine luteinizing hormone) have little effect on the K+ conductance. They transiently increase a Cl- conductance after a delay of up to 30 s. This response does not occur if the hormones are applied late in the whole-cell recording. Gonadoliberine (GnRH) does not affect the Cl- or K+ conductance. 5. Internal cyclic AMP (100 microM) mimics all these effects while internal application of a GTP-ATP mixture induces a similar response, which is, however, sustained rather than transient. 6. The Cl- conductance was studied quantitatively with a GTP-ATP internal solution. This conductance is activated by depolarizing voltage steps to test potentials of -40 mV or more. Under these conditions, the instantaneous current observed as soon as the depolarizing pulse is applied displays outward rectification and reverses near ECl. During the pulses, a strong inactivation is observed for potentials greater than +40 mV. This conductance is independent of external and internal calcium. 7. It is concluded that the gonadotrophins act through a cyclic AMP-dependent process to activate a Cl- conductance. This conductance is different to the hyperpolarization-activated Cl- conductance and the calcium-activated Cl-conductance also present in the membrane of resting cells.

Potassium current activated by intracellular sodium in quail trigeminal ganglion neurons

Whole-cell voltage clamp and single-channel recordings were performed on cultured trigeminal ganglion neurons from quail embryos in order to study a sodium-activated potassium current (KNa). When KNa was activated by a step depolarization in voltage clamp, there was a proportionality between KNa and INa at all voltages between the threshold of INa and ENa. Single-channel recordings indicated that KNa could be activated already by 12 mM intracellular sodium and was almost fully activated at 50 mM sodium. 100 mM lithium, 100 mM choline, or 5 microM calcium did not activate KNa. The relationship between the probability for the channel to be open (Po) vs. the sodium concentration and the relationship of KNa open time-distributions vs. the sodium concentration suggest that two to three sodium ions bind cooperatively before KNa channels open. KNa channels were sensitive to depolarization; at 12 mM sodium, a 42-mV depolarization caused an e-fold increase in Po. Under physiological conditions, the conductance of the KNa channel was 50 pS. This conductance increased to 174 pS when the intra- and extracellular potassium concentrations were 75 and 150 mM, respectively.

Short- and long-term desensitization of serotonergic response in Xenopus oocytes injected with brain RNA: roles for inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate and protein kinase C

In Xenopus oocytes injected with rat brain RNA, serotonin (5HT) and acetylcholine (ACh) evoke membrane responses through a common biochemical cascade that includes activation of phospholipase C, production of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (Ins1,4,5-P3), release of Ca2+ from intracellular stores, and opening of Ca-dependent Cl- channels. The response is a Cl- current composed of a transient component (5HT1 or ACh1) and a slow, long-lasting component (5HT2 or ACh2). Here we show that only the fast, but not the slow, component of the response is subject to desensitization that follows a previous application of the transmitter. The recovery of 5HT1 from desensitization is biphasic, suggesting the existence of two types of desensitization: short-term desensitization (STD), which lasts for less than 0.5 h; and long-term desensitization (LTD) lasting for up to 4 h. The desensitization between 5HT and ACh is heterologous and long-lasting. We searched for (a) the molecular target and (b) the cause of desensitization. (a) Pre-exposure to 5HT does not reduce the response evoked by intracellular injection of Ca2+ and by Ca2+ influx. Cl- current evoked by intracellular injection of Ins1,4,5-P3 was reduced shortly after application of 5HT, but fully recovered 30 min later. Thus, the Cl- channel is not a target for desensitization. Neither Ins1,4,5-P3 receptor nor the Ca2+ store is a target of LTD but they may be the targets of STD. (b) Ca2+ injection did not inhibit the 5HT response, suggesting that Ca2+ is not a sole cause of STD or LTD.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Calcium-dependent chloride current in neurones of the rabbit pelvic parasympathetic ganglia

1. Voltage-clamp recordings were made from neurones in rabbit vesical pelvic ganglia by using single microelectrodes filled with 2 M-caesium chloride. Neurones were superfused with Krebs solution containing 300 nM-tetrodotoxin and 50 mM-tetraethylammonium. 2. Depolarizing voltage jumps activated inward currents followed by slowly decaying inward tail currents at -30 to +30 mV, which were accompanied by a large increase in membrane conductance. Both the inward current and tail current were blocked by cobalt (2 mM) or in a Krebs solution containing zero calcium and 12 mM-magnesium. 3. Substitution of barium for calcium enhanced the inward current, while it strongly reduced the tail current. Strontium substitution still exhibited both the inward current and the tail current. 4. Lowering external chloride activity increased the tail current amplitudes without affecting an initial calcium current. The reversal potentials of the tail current, measured using a twin-pulse protocol, were -18 +/- 5 mV (mean +/- S.E.M., n = 8) and +5 +/- 3 mV (n = 5) in Krebs solution and low-chloride (62 mM) solution, respectively, suggesting a calcium-dependent chloride current. 5. Stilbene derivatives, 4-acetamido-4'-isothiocyanostilbene-2,2'-disulphonic acid (SITS, 0.01-1 mM) and 4,4'-diisothiocyanostilbene-2,2'-disulphonic acid (DIDS, 0.01-1 mM), reversibly and concentration dependently depressed the tail current without affecting the calcium current. 6. Transient (T) and sustained (N and L) types of calcium current were likely to co-exist in neurones of the rabbit pelvic ganglia. Calcium-dependent chloride current was activated by N- and L-type calcium currents but not by T-type current. 7. Activation of the tail current at 0 to +20 mV was described by a single-exponential function. The tail current decayed exponentially at a holding membrane potential of -70 mV. Tail decay time constants were dependent on voltage and duration of the step command. 8. Substantial activation of the calcium-dependent chloride conductance could occur during a post-tetanic after-potential when pelvic ganglia neurones fired action potentials repetitively.

Evidence for two independent pathways in the stimulation of steroidogenesis by luteinizing hormone involving chloride channels and cyclic AMP

The possible role of chloride channels in luteinizing hormone (LH) action on steroidogenesis in rat Leydig cells had been investigated. A chloride channel blocker, SITS (4-acetamido-4'-isothiocyanatostilbene-2,2'-disulphonic acid), inhibited LH-stimulated steroidogenesis at low (less than or equal to 1 ng/ml), but not at high (100 ng/ml) LH concentrations. In addition, dibutyryl cyclic AMP- and forskolin-stimulated steroidogenesis was unaffected by SITS. The removal of extracellular chloride potentiated steroidogenesis stimulated by submaximal but not maximal doses of LH. These results suggest that at low levels of LH, steroidogenesis depends on chloride channels whereas with high levels, cyclic AMP is the mediator of LH action.

Large unit conductance voltage chloride channels are expressed in mouse neural crest cells and embryonic dorsal root ganglion cells

The early expression of voltage-activated chloride channels of large unitary conductance (450 pS in symmetrical 140 mM KCl) was demonstrated using patch-clamp techniques in two preparations: (i) neural crest cells isolated from 9-day-old (E9) mouse embryos and (ii) acutely isolated dorsal root ganglion cells isolated from E12 mouse embryos. Properties of these ionic channels have been analyzed using single channel recordings and the group mean of these single channels.

Ionic dependencies of tetrodotoxin-resistant action potentials in trigeminal root ganglion neurons

Action potentials recorded in vitro from the perikarya of trigeminal root ganglion neurons (guinea-pig) were examined for their sensitivities to blockers of specific ion channels or to removal of certain ionic species in the bathing media. The majority (approximately 65%) of the 137 neurons exhibited action potentials following application of the Na(+)-channel blocker, tetrodotoxin. This group of neurons was selected for further investigation under conditions of extracellular K(+)-channel blockade with tetraethylammonium and 4-aminopyridine. Long-duration action potentials consisting of two distinct components could be evoked under such conditions. The fast component of the spike was abolished in Na(+)-deficient perfusion media and was sensitive to blockade by extracellular lidocaine or intracellular QX-222 applications. It is likely that the slow component was mediated mainly by Ca2+, but in Ca2(+)-deficient media. Mg2(+)-influx may have contributed to the small voltage response. The amplitude and shape of the slow component was unaffected by applications of lidocaine or QX-222. Self-sustained repetitive firing was also observed in 11 neurons in the above conditions. This activity persisted even under conditions of severe deficiencies in extracellular [Ca2+] or [Na+]. Two distinct but overlapping K(+)-conductances that were sensitive to blockade by internal Cs(+)-application and insensitive to applications of tetraethylammonium and 4-aminopyridine, appear to mediate the afterhyperpolarization of the long-duration spike. One portion of the afterhyperpolarization was 60-150 ms in duration and was unaffected by removal of Ca2+ from the extracellular media, while the other had a time-course lasting 150-250 ms and was abolished by removal of external Ca2+. In some neurons, these K(+)-conductances were blocked by high doses of doxorubicin or cisplatin. The results show that at least two ion species (Na+ and Ca2+) contribute to the formation of the tetrodotoxin-resistant, long-duration action potential in trigeminal root ganglion neurons during selective K(+)-conductance blockade and also provide evidence for Mg2+ involvement in the generation of this voltage response.

The physiological role of calcium-dependent channels

Calcium (Ca2+)-dependent channels may be classified in three broad categories, which are, respectively, selective for potassium ions, for chloride ions, and for monovalent cations. The usual action of Ca2+ is to increase the probability of opening of the channels, but examples of the reverse, Ca2+-induced inhibition of ion channels, have recently been found. Ca2+-dependent channels help to shape the action potentials of excitable cells as well as the synaptic currents of muscular and neuronal preparations. They are involved in several aspects of electrolyte transport including regulation of osmolarity in animal cells and of turgor in plant cells, electrolyte secretion in exocrine glands, fluid absorption and secretion in epithelial tissues.

Transient expression of a Ca2+-activated Cl- current during development of quail sensory neurons

The expression of a calcium-activated chloride current (ICl(Ca)) was studied during the development of the sensory neurons of quail trigeminal ganglia. This current is expressed in 20% of the neurons by the 5th day of embryonic development; it can be found in nearly all neurons by the 7th day and subsequently disappears in half of them. Similar results were obtained with dorsal root ganglion neurons. The disappearance of ICl(Ca) in part of the sensory neurons during development is not due to a selective death of the neurons possessing this current and our results suggest that it is mediated by an interaction of the sensory neurons with their target tissue.

Calcium-activated chloride current in rat vascular smooth muscle cells in short-term primary culture

Isolated cells from rat portal vein smooth muscle in short-term primary culture were studied using patch-clamp technique (whole-cell configuration). In order to study a calcium-activated chloride current, the potassium currents were blocked by intracellular cesium diffusion. Without EGTA in the pipette solution, depolarizing voltage pulses from a holding potential of -70 mV to positive potentials activated an early inward and a late outward current. The latter persisted as a long-lasting inward tail current when the membrane was repolarized to -70 mV. The outward current measured at the end of the pulse and the tail current were blocked by extracellular cobalt, after replacement of external calcium with barium, after removal of external calcium, and when the calcium concentration of the pipette solution was less than 0.5 microM, suggesting that they were calcium-dependent. The tail current decay was voltage sensitive, becoming faster with hyperpolarization. The reversal potential of the calcium-activated current was near the equilibrium potential for chloride ions, and was shifted as predicted by the Nernst equation when the extracellular or intracellular chloride concentration was changed. The calcium-activated current was blocked by adding micromolar concentrations of niflumic acid or millimolar concentrations of DIDS. This effect of compounds known to interfere with chloride channels together with the data on the equilibrium potential for chloride ions indicated above suggested the existence of a calcium-activated chloride current in vascular smooth muscle cells.

Expression of substance P and of a Ca2+-activated Cl- current in quail sensory trigeminal neurons

A chloride current activated by an increase in intracellular calcium concentration is not present in all neurons of the trigeminal ganglion. It is not known whether the trigeminal neurons expressing calcium-activated chloride current belong to a defined class of neurons or whether they could belong to any class of sensory neurons. An answer to this question would be of importance because the physiological role of calcium-activated chloride current in neurons has not yet been completely established, nonetheless it is clear that this current, when activated, would act to modulate neuronal excitability. The goal of this study was to determine whether there was a difference in the expression of calcium-activated chloride current between neurons with and without substance P. The rationale was that the use of this morphological marker, which is present in a substantial fraction of embryonic trigeminal neurons, may give a first estimate of a possible inhomogeneity in the expression of calcium-activated chloride current among different classes of sensory neurons. The study was done on freshly dissociated neurons in order to minimize the influence of the culture conditions on the expression of the current or of substance P. By recording from large samples of neurons in cultures either enriched or depleted in substance P-containing neurons, we found that neurons with substance P expressed calcium-activated chloride current three times less frequently than neurons without substance P. This observation was confirmed by performing the immunocytochemical labelling for substance P immediately after the electrophysiological assessment of the presence or absence of calcium-activated chloride current. This result indicates that calcium-activated chloride current may not be randomly distributed in neurons of a sensory ganglion. It raises the possibility that neurons belonging to certain sensory modalities may need calcium-activated chloride current for their physiological functioning.

Small-conductance chloride channels activated by calcium on cultured endocrine cells from mammalian pars intermedia

Porcine intermediate lobe (IL) endocrine cells maintained in primary culture have been studied using patch-clamp derived configurations to record unitary activity on outside-out vesicles. Solutions were devised so as to record Cl current in isolation and to fix cytoplasmic Ca concentration [Ca]i between 0.1 microM and 3 microM. Between [Ca]i 0.5 and 1 microM, the chloride permeability was restricted to single events with a small amplitude, that varied linearly with the membrane potential. Mean slope conductance of this chloride channel was 2.5 pS. Single channel analysis yielded two mean open time values of 10 and 55 ms at -80 mV. Relaxations of chloride currents on outside-out patches was examined at different [Ca]i. Relaxation was negligible at 0.15 microM [Ca]i, whereas at higher [Ca]i, the current exhibited relaxation in response to voltage jumps the kinetic of which could be fitted by two exponentials. At 0.5 microM [Ca]i, the fast relaxation time constant was shown to be voltage insensitive with a value of about 10 ms. The slow relaxation time constant had a mean value of 75 ms at -60 mV and increased with membrane depolarization with a twofold change over 120 mV. Another voltage effect was to favour the slow opening mode at the more depolarized potentials: the ratio of fast to slow relaxations being 5:1 at -60 mV as compared to 1:1 at +80 mV). Finally the estimated probability of opening (po) linearly increased with voltage. po displayed a bell-shaped dependence on [Ca]i, so that full activation of the channels was not achieved.

Calcium and calcium-dependent chloride currents generate action potentials in solitary cone photoreceptors

Vertebrate rod and cone photoreceptors hyperpolarize when illuminated. However, synaptic input from horizontal cells can depolarize cones and even elicit action potentials. Using the whole-cell tight-seal recording technique, we determined that, in solitary cones isolated from a lizard retina, action potentials can be generated by depolarizing current steps under conditions where only two ionic currents are activated. A dihydropyridine-sensitive, inward Ca2+ current that activates at potentials positive to -40 mV can regeneratively depolarize the cell. Subsequently, a SITS-sensitive, Ca2(+)-dependent outward Cl- current repolarizes the cell. We suggest that these ionic currents may help explain lateral inhibition in the retina.

Membrane currents of rat satellite cells attached to intact skeletal muscle fibers

Muscle satellite cells play an important role in the postnatal growth of skeletal muscle and in the regeneration of damaged muscle during adult life. Little is known about the physiological properties of satellite cells in their dormant state as they lie adjacent to the intact muscle fibers, underneath the basement membrane. Our recent experiments, using patch clamp techniques, indicate that no tight electrical coupling is present between satellite cells and the muscle fiber dissociated from rat flexor digitorum brevis. Satellite cells possess sodium channels with low sensitivity to tetrodotoxin and at a much lower density than muscle. In addition, satellite cells are insensitive to acetylcholine (ACh) for at least 24 hr after having been removed from the animal, even when detached from their muscle fiber. However, we could measure ACh-evoked currents from satellite cells 48-72 hr in culture, indicating that ACh sensitivity develops with time.