Calcium diffusion enhanced after cleavage of negatively charged components of brain extracellular matrix by chondroitinase ABC

The extracellular matrix molecule brevican is an integral component of the machinery mediating fast synaptic transmission at the calyx of Held

KEY POINTS

The proteoglycan brevican is a major component of the extracellular matrix of perineuronal nets and is highly enriched in the perisynaptic space suggesting a role for synaptic transmission. We have introduced the calyx of Held in the auditory brainstem as a model system to study the impact of brevican on dynamics and reliability of synaptic transmission. In vivo extracellular single-unit recordings at the calyx of Held in brevican-deficient mice yielded a significant increase in the action potential (AP) transmission delay and a prolongation of pre- and postsynaptic APs. The changes in dynamics of signal transmission were accompanied by the reduction of presynaptic vGlut1 and ultrastructural changes in the perisynaptic space. These data show that brevican is an important mediator of fast synaptic transmission at the calyx of Held.

ABSTRACT

The extracellular matrix is an integral part of the neural tissue. Its most conspicuous manifestation in the brain are the perineuronal nets (PNs) which surround somata and proximal dendrites of distinct neuron types. The chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan brevican is a major component of PNs. In contrast to other PN-comprising proteoglycans (e.g. aggrecan and neurocan), brevican is mainly expressed in the perisynaptic space closely associated with both the pre- and postsynaptic membrane. This specific localization prompted the hypothesis that brevican might play a role in synaptic transmission. In the present study we specifically investigated the role of brevican in synaptic transmission at a central synapse, the calyx of Held in the medial nucleus of the trapezoid body, by the use of in vivo electrophysiology, immunohistochemistry, biochemistry and electron microscopy. In vivo extracellular single-unit recordings were acquired in brevican-deficient mice and the dynamics and reliability of synaptic transmission were compared to wild-type littermates. In knockout mice, the speed of pre-to-postsynaptic action potential (AP) transmission was reduced and the duration of the respective pre- and postsynaptic APs increased. The reliability of signal transmission, however, was not affected by the lack of brevican. The changes in dynamics of signal transmission were accompanied by the reduction of (i) presynaptic vGlut1 and (ii) the size of subsynaptic cavities. The present results suggest an essential role of brevican for the functionality of high-speed synaptic transmission at the calyx of Held.

Modeling the kinetic diversity of dopamine in the dorsal striatum

Dopamine is an important neurotransmitter that exhibits numerous functions in the healthy, injured, and diseased brain. Fast scan cyclic voltammetry paired with electrical stimulation of dopamine axons is a popular and powerful method for investigating the dynamics of dopamine in the extracellular space. Evidence now suggests that the heterogeneity of electrically evoked dopamine responses reflects the inherent kinetic diversity of dopamine systems, which might contribute to their diversity of physiological function. Dopamine measurements by fast scan cyclic voltammetry are affected by the adsorption of dopamine to carbon fiber electrodes. The temporal distortion caused by dopamine adsorption is correctable by a straightforward mathematical procedure. The corrected responses exhibit excellent agreement with a dopamine kinetic model cast to provide a generic description of restricted diffusion, short-term plasticity of dopamine release, and first-order dopamine clearance. The new DA kinetic model brings to light the rich kinetic information content of electrically evoked dopamine responses recorded via fast scan cyclic voltammetry in the rat dorsal striatum.

L-type Calcium Channel Cav1.2 Is Required for Maintenance of Auditory Brainstem Nuclei

Cav1.2 and Cav1.3 are the major L-type voltage-gated Ca(2+) channels in the CNS. Yet, their individual in vivo functions are largely unknown. Both channel subunits are expressed in the auditory brainstem, where Cav1.3 is essential for proper maturation. Here, we investigated the role of Cav1.2 by targeted deletion in the mouse embryonic auditory brainstem. Similar to Cav1.3, loss of Cav1.2 resulted in a significant decrease in the volume and cell number of auditory nuclei. Contrary to the deletion of Cav1.3, the action potentials of lateral superior olive (LSO) neurons were narrower compared with controls, whereas the firing behavior and neurotransmission appeared unchanged. Furthermore, auditory brainstem responses were nearly normal in mice lacking Cav1.2. Perineuronal nets were also unaffected. The medial nucleus of the trapezoid body underwent a rapid cell loss between postnatal days P0 and P4, shortly after circuit formation. Phosphorylated cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB), nuclear NFATc4, and the expression levels of p75NTR, Fas, and FasL did not correlate with cell death. These data demonstrate for the first time that both Cav1.2 and Cav1.3 are necessary for neuronal survival but are differentially required for the biophysical properties of neurons. Thus, they perform common as well as distinct functions in the same tissue.

Degradation of extracellular chondroitin sulfate delays recovery of network activity after perturbation

Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans (CSPGs) are widely studied in vertebrate systems and are known to play a key role in development, plasticity, and regulation of cortical circuitry. The mechanistic details of this role are still elusive, but increasingly central to the investigation is the homeostatic balance between network excitation and inhibition. Studying a simpler neuronal circuit may prove advantageous for discovering the mechanistic details of the cellular effects of CSPGs. In this study we used a well-established model of homeostatic change after injury in the crab Cancer borealis to show first evidence that CSPGs are necessary for network activity homeostasis. We degraded CSPGs in the pyloric circuit of the stomatogastric ganglion with the enzyme chondroitinase ABC (chABC) and found that removal of CSPGs does not influence the ongoing rhythm of the pyloric circuit but does limit its capacity for recovery after a networkwide perturbation. Without CSPGs, the postperturbation rhythm is slower than in controls and rhythm recovery is delayed. In addition to providing a new model system for the study of CSPGs, this study suggests a wider role for CSPGs, and perhaps the extracellular matrix in general, beyond simply plastic reorganization (as observed in mammals) and into a foundational regulatory role of neural circuitry.

Chondroitin Sulfate Induces Depression of Synaptic Transmission and Modulation of Neuronal Plasticity in Rat Hippocampal Slices

It is currently known that in CNS the extracellular matrix is involved in synaptic stabilization and limitation of synaptic plasticity. However, it has been reported that the treatment with chondroitinase following injury allows the formation of new synapses and increased plasticity and functional recovery. So, we hypothesize that some components of extracellular matrix may modulate synaptic transmission. To test this hypothesis we evaluated the effects of chondroitin sulphate (CS) on excitatory synaptic transmission, cellular excitability, and neuronal plasticity using extracellular recordings in the CA1 area of rat hippocampal slices. CS caused a reversible depression of evoked field excitatory postsynaptic potentials in a concentration-dependent manner. CS also reduced the population spike amplitude evoked after orthodromic stimulation but not when the population spikes were antidromically evoked; in this last case a potentiation was observed. CS also enhanced paired-pulse facilitation and long-term potentiation. Our study provides evidence that CS, a major component of the brain perineuronal net and extracellular matrix, has a function beyond the structural one, namely, the modulation of synaptic transmission and neuronal plasticity in the hippocampus.

The quest for a better insight into physiology of fluids and barriers of the brain: the exemplary career of Joseph D. Fenstermacher

In June 2014 Dr. Joseph D. Fenstermacher celebrated his 80th birthday, which was honored by the symposium held in New London, NH, USA. This review discusses Fenstermacher's contribution to the field of fluids and barriers of the CNS. Specifically, his fundamental work on diffusion of molecules within the brain extracellular space and the research on properties of the blood-brain barrier in health and disease are described. Fenstermacher's early research on cerebrospinal fluid dynamics and the regulation of cerebral blood flow is also reviewed, followed by the discussion of his more recent work involving the use of magnetic resonance imaging.

A novel restricted diffusion model of evoked dopamine

In vivo fast-scan cyclic voltammetry provides high-fidelity recordings of electrically evoked dopamine release in the rat striatum. The evoked responses are suitable targets for numerical modeling because the frequency and duration of the stimulus are exactly known. Responses recorded in the dorsal and ventral striatum of the rat do not bear out the predictions of a numerical model that assumes the presence of a diffusion gap interposed between the recording electrode and nearby dopamine terminals. Recent findings, however, suggest that dopamine may be subject to restricted diffusion processes in brain extracellular space. A numerical model cast to account for restricted diffusion produces excellent agreement between simulated and observed responses recorded under a broad range of anatomical, stimulus, and pharmacological conditions. The numerical model requires four, and in some cases only three, adjustable parameters and produces meaningful kinetic parameter values.

Molecular mechanisms of scar-sourced axon growth inhibitors

Astrogliosis is a defense response of the CNS to minimize primary damage and to repair injured tissues, but it ultimately generates harmful effects by upregulating inhibitory molecules to suppress neuronal elongation and forming potent barriers to axon regeneration. Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans (CSPGs) are highly expressed by reactive scars and are potent contributors to the non-permissive environment in mature CNS. Surmounting strong inhibition by CSPG-rich scar is an important therapeutic goal for achieving functional recovery after CNS injuries. Currently, enzymatic digestion of CSPGs with locally applied chondroitinase ABC is the main in vivo approach to overcome scar inhibition, but several disadvantages may prevent using this bacterial enzyme as a therapeutic option for patients. A better understanding of molecular mechanisms underlying CSPG function may facilitate development of new effective therapies to overcome scar-mediated inhibition. Previous studies support that CSPGs act by non-specifically hindering the binding of matrix molecules to their cell surface receptors through steric interactions, but two members of the leukocyte common antigen related (LAR) phosphatase subfamily, protein tyrosine phosphatase σ and LAR, are functional receptors that bind CSPGs with high affinity and mediate CSPG inhibition. CSPGs may also act by binding two receptors for myelin-associated growth inhibitors, Nogo receptors 1 and 3. Thus, CSPGs inhibit axon growth through multiple mechanisms, making them especially potent and difficult therapeutic targets. Identification of CSPG receptors is not only important for understanding the scar-mediated growth suppression, but also for developing novel and selective therapies to promote axon sprouting and/or regeneration after CNS injuries. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled SI: Spinal cord injury.

Life and death of a cardiac calcium spark

Calcium sparks in cardiac myocytes are brief, localized calcium releases from the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) believed to be caused by locally regenerative calcium-induced calcium release (CICR) via couplons, clusters of ryanodine receptors (RyRs). How such regeneration is terminated is uncertain. We performed numerical simulations of an idealized stochastic model of spark production, assuming a RyR gating scheme with only two states (open and closed). Local depletion of calcium in the SR was inevitable during a spark, and this could terminate sparks by interrupting CICR, with or without assumed modulation of RyR gating by SR lumenal calcium. Spark termination by local SR depletion was not robust: under some conditions, sparks could be greatly and variably prolonged, terminating by stochastic attrition-a phenomenon we dub "spark metastability." Spark fluorescence rise time was not a good surrogate for the duration of calcium release. Using a highly simplified, deterministic model of the dynamics of a couplon, we show that spark metastability depends on the kinetic relationship of RyR gating and junctional SR refilling rates. The conditions for spark metastability resemble those produced by known mutations of RyR2 and CASQ2 that cause life-threatening triggered arrhythmias, and spark metastability may be mitigated by altering the kinetics of the RyR in a manner similar to the effects of drugs known to prevent those arrhythmias. The model was unable to explain the distributions of spark amplitudes and rise times seen in chemically skinned cat atrial myocytes, suggesting that such sparks may be more complex events involving heterogeneity of couplons or local propagation among sub-clusters of RyRs.

Aggrecan, link protein and tenascin-R are essential components of the perineuronal net to protect neurons against iron-induced oxidative stress

In Alzheimer's disease (AD), different types of neurons and different brain areas show differential patterns of vulnerability towards neurofibrillary degeneration, which provides the basis for a highly predictive profile of disease progression throughout the brain that now is widely accepted for neuropathological staging. In previous studies we could demonstrate that in AD cortical and subcortical neurons are constantly less frequently affected by neurofibrillary degeneration if they are enwrapped by a specialized form of the hyaluronan-based extracellular matrix (ECM), the so called ‘perineuronal net' (PN). PNs are basically composed of large aggregating chondroitin sulphate proteoglycans connected to a hyaluronan backbone, stabilized by link proteins and cross-linked via tenascin-R (TN-R). Under experimental conditions in mice, PN-ensheathed neurons are better protected against iron-induced neurodegeneration than neurons without PN. Still, it remains unclear whether these neuroprotective effects are directly mediated by the PNs or are associated with some other mechanism in these neurons unrelated to PNs. To identify molecular components that essentially mediate the neuroprotective aspect on PN-ensheathed neurons, we comparatively analysed neuronal degeneration induced by a single injection of FeCl₃ on four different mice knockout strains, each being deficient for a different component of PNs. Aggrecan, link protein and TN-R were identified to be essential for the neuroprotective properties of PN, whereas the contribution of brevican was negligible. Our findings indicate that the protection of PN-ensheathed neurons is directly mediated by the net structure and that both the high negative charge and the correct interaction of net components are essential for their neuroprotective function.

An excess-calcium-binding-site model predicts neurotransmitter release at the neuromuscular junction

Despite decades of intense experimental studies, we still lack a detailed understanding of synaptic function. Fortunately, using computational approaches, we can obtain important new insights into the inner workings of these important neural systems. Here, we report the development of a spatially realistic computational model of an entire frog active zone in which we constrained model parameters with experimental data, and then used Monte Carlo simulation methods to predict the Ca(2+)-binding stoichiometry and dynamics that underlie neurotransmitter release. Our model reveals that 20-40 independent Ca(2+)-binding sites on synaptic vesicles, only a fraction of which need to bind Ca(2+) to trigger fusion, are sufficient to predict physiological release. Our excess-Ca(2+)-binding-site model has many functional advantages, agrees with recent data on synaptotagmin copy number, and is the first (to our knowledge) to link detailed physiological observations with the molecular machinery of Ca(2+)-triggered exocytosis. In addition, our model provides detailed microscopic insight into the underlying Ca(2+) dynamics during synapse activation.

ECM in brain aging and dementia

An essential component of the brain extracellular space is the extracellular matrix contributing to the spatial assembly of cells by binding cell-surface adhesion molecules, supporting cell migration, differentiation, and tissue development. The most interesting and complex functions of the central nervous system are the abilities to encode new information (learning) and to store this information (memory). The creation of perineuronal nets, consisting mostly of chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans, stabilizes the synapses and memory trails and forms protective shields against neurodegenerative processes but terminates plasticity and the potential for recovery of the tissue. Age-related changes in the extracellular matrix composition and the extracellular space volume and permissivity are major determinants of the onset and development of the most common neurodegenerative disorder, Alzheimer's disease. In this regard, heparan sulfate proteoglycans, involved in amyloid clearance from the brain, play an important role in Alzheimer's disease and other types of neurodegeneration. Additional key players in the modification of the extracellular matrix are matrix metalloproteinases. Recent studies show that the extracellular matrix and matrix metalloproteinases are important regulators of plasticity, learning, and memory and might be involved in different neurological disorders like epilepsy, schizophrenia, addiction, and dementia. The identification of molecules and mechanisms that modulate these processes is crucial for the understanding of brain function and dysfunction and for the design of new therapeutic approaches targeting the molecular mechanism underlying these neurological disorders.

Chondroitinase enhances cortical map plasticity and increases functionally active sprouting axons after brain injury

The beneficial effect of interventions with chondroitinase ABC enzyme to reduce axon growth-inhibitory chondroitin sulphate side chains after central nervous system injuries has been mainly attributed to enhanced axonal sprouting. After traumatic brain injury (TBI), it is unknown whether newly sprouting axons that occur as a result of interventional strategies are able to functionally contribute to existing circuitry, and it is uncertain whether maladaptive sprouting occurs to increase the well-known risk for seizure activity after TBI. Here, we show that after a controlled cortical impact injury in rats, chondroitinase infusion into injured cortex at 30 min and 3 days reduced c-Fos⁺ cell staining resulting from the injury alone at 1 week postinjury, indicating that at baseline, abnormal spontaneous activity is likely to be reduced, not increased, with this type of intervention. c-Fos⁺ cell staining elicited by neural activity from stimulation of the affected forelimb 1 week after injury was significantly enhanced by chondroitinase, indicating a widespread effect on cortical map plasticity. Underlying this map plasticity was a larger contribution of neuronal, rather than glial cells and an absence of c-Fos⁺ cells surrounded by perineuronal nets that were normally present in stimulated naïve rats. After injury, chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan digestion produced the expected increase in growth-associated protein 43-positive axons and perikarya, of which a significantly greater number were double labeled for c-Fos after intervention with chondroitinase, compared to vehicle. These data indicate that chondroitinase produces significant gains in cortical map plasticity after TBI, and that either axonal sprouting and/or changes in perineuronal nets may underlie this effect. Chondroitinase dampens, rather than increases nonspecific c-Fos activity after brain injury, and induction of axonal sprouting is not maladaptive because greater numbers are functionally active and provide a significant contribution to forelimb circuitry after brain injury.

The molecular basis of memory. Part 2: chemistry of the tripartite mechanism

We propose a tripartite mechanism to describe the processing of cognitive information (cog-info), comprising the (1) neuron, (2) surrounding neural extracellular matrix (nECM), and (3) numerous "trace" metals distributed therein. The neuron is encased in a polyanionic nECM lattice doped with metals (>10), wherein it processes (computes) and stores cog-info. Each [nECM:metal] complex is the molecular correlate of a cognitive unit of information (cuinfo), similar to a computer "bit". These are induced/sensed by the neuron via surface iontophoretic and electroelastic (piezoelectric) sensors. The generic cuinfo are used by neurons to biochemically encode and store cog-info in a rapid, energy efficient, but computationally expansive manner. Here, we describe chemical reactions involved in various processes that underline the tripartite mechanism. In addition, we present novel iconographic representations of various types of cuinfo resulting from"tagging" and cross-linking reactions, essential for the indexing cuinfo for organized retrieval and storage of memory.

Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans inhibit oligodendrocyte myelination through PTPσ

CNS damage often results in demyelination of spared axons due to oligodendroglial cell death and dysfunction near the injury site. Although new oligodendroglia are generated following CNS injury and disease, the process of remyelination is typically incomplete resulting in long-term functional deficits. Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans (CSPGs) are upregulated in CNS grey and white matter following injury and disease and are a major component of the inhibitory scar that suppresses axon regeneration. CSPG inhibition of axonal regeneration is mediated, at least in part, by the protein tyrosine phosphatase sigma (PTPσ) receptor. Recent evidence demonstrates that CSPGs inhibit OL process outgrowth, however, the means by which their effects are mediated remains unclear. Here we investigate the role of PTPσ in CSPG inhibition of OL function. We found that the CSPGs, aggrecan, neurocan and NG2 all imposed an inhibitory effect on OL process outgrowth and myelination. These inhibitory effects were reversed by degradation of CSPGs with Chondroitinase ABC prior to OL exposure. RNAi-mediated down-regulation of PTPσ reversed the inhibitory effect of CSPGs on OL process outgrowth and myelination. Likewise, CSPG inhibition of process outgrowth and myelination was significantly reduced in cultures containing PTPσ(-/-) OLs. Finally, inhibition of Rho-associated kinase (ROCK) increased OL process outgrowth and myelination during exposure to CSPGs. These results suggest that in addition to their inhibitory effects on axon regeneration, CSPGs have multiple inhibitory actions on OLs that result in incomplete remyelination following CNS injury. The identification of PTPσ as a receptor for CSPGs, and the participation of ROCK downstream of CSPG exposure, reveal potential therapeutic targets to enhance white matter repair in the damaged CNS.

Calcium-sensitive mini- and microelectrodes

It is widely agreed that the best method for measuring the ionized free calcium concentration ([Ca(2+)]) in large volumes of biological solutions is to use Ca(2+)-sensitive macroelectrodes. These are commercially available. To measure [Ca(2+)] in small volumes of solution, minielectrodes with 1-2-mm tips can easily be made and used, and may also be commercially available. Ca(2+)-sensitive microelectrodes (CaSMs, with 0.5-2-μm tips) can also be made and used extracellularly or intracellularly in robust cells, but interest in their use has recently been largely eclipsed. This is because of practical difficulties and the introduction of a large number of fluorescent and other optical calcium probes with calcium sensitivities varying from the nanomolar to the millimolar range, such as Fura-2, Indo-1, Fluo-4, and many others. In this article, we emphasize the utility of Ca(2+)-selective electrodes and show that their use is complementary to use of fluorescent and other optical methods. Each method has advantages and disadvantages. Because numerous reviews and books have been dedicated to the theoretical aspects of ion-selective electrode principles and technology, this article is mainly intended for investigators who have some degree of electrophysiological experience with ion-selective electrodes or microelectrodes.

Chondroitin sulfate, a major component of the perineuronal net, elicits inward currents, cell depolarization, and calcium transients by acting on AMPA and kainate receptors of hippocampal neurons

Chondroitin sulfate (CS) proteoglycans (CSPGs) are the most abundant PGs of the brain extracellular matrix (ECM). Free CS could be released during ECM degradation and exert physiological functions; thus, we aimed to investigate the effects of CS on voltage- and current-clamped rat embryo hippocampal neurons in primary cultures. We found that CS elicited a whole-cell Na(+)-dependent inward current (ICS) that produced drastic cell depolarization, and a cytosolic calcium transient ([Ca(2+)]c). Those effects were similar to those elicited by α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazole-4-propionate (AMPA) and kainate, were completely blocked by NBQX and CNQX, were partially blocked by GYKI, and were unaffected by MK801 and D-APV. Furthermore, ICS and AMPA currents were similarly potentiated by cyclothiazide, a positive allosteric modulator of AMPA receptors. Because CSPGs have been attributed Ca(2) (+) -dependent roles, such as neural network development, axon pathfinding, plasticity and regeneration after CNS injury, CS action after ECM degradation could be contributing to the mediation of these effects through its interaction with AMPA and kainate receptors.

Scar-mediated inhibition and CSPG receptors in the CNS

Severed axons in adult mammals do not regenerate appreciably after central nervous system (CNS) injury due to developmentally determined reductions in neuron-intrinsic growth capacity and extracellular environment for axon elongation. Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans (CSPGs), which are generated by reactive scar tissues, are particularly potent contributors to the growth-limiting environment in mature CNS. Thus, surmounting the strong inhibition by CSPG-rich scar is an important therapeutic goal for achieving functional recovery after CNS injuries. As of now, the main in vivo approach to overcoming inhibition by CSPGs is enzymatic digestion with locally applied chondroitinase ABC (ChABC), but several disadvantages may prevent using this bacterial enzyme as a therapeutic option for patients. A better understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying CSPG action is needed in order to develop more effective therapies to overcome CSPG-mediated inhibition of axon regeneration and/or sprouting. Because of their large size and dense negative charges, CSPGs were thought to act by non-specifically hindering the binding of matrix molecules to their cell surface receptors through steric interactions. Although this may be true, recent studies indicate that two members of the leukocyte common antigen related (LAR) phosphatase subfamily, protein tyrosine phosphatase σ (PTPσ) and LAR, are functional receptors that bind CSPGs with high affinity and mediate CSPG inhibitory effects. CSPGs also may act by binding to two receptors for myelin-associated growth inhibitors, Nogo receptors 1 and 3 (NgR1 and NgR3). If confirmed, it would suggest that CSPGs have multiple mechanisms by which they inhibit axon growth, making them especially potent and difficult therapeutic targets. Identification of CSPG receptors is not only important for understanding the scar-mediated growth suppression, but also for developing novel and selective therapies to promote axon sprouting and/or regeneration after CNS injuries, including spinal cord injury (SCI).

Brain Extracellular Space as a Diffusion Barrier

The extracellular space (ECS) consists of the narrow channels between brain cells together with their geometrical configuration and contents. Despite being only 20-60 nm in width, the ECS typically occupies 20% of the brain volume. Numerous experiments over the last 50 years have established that molecules moving through the ECS obey the laws of diffusion but with an effective diffusion coefficient reduced by a factor of about 2.6 compared to free diffusion. This review considers the origins of the diffusion barrier arising from the ECS and its properties. The paper presents a brief overview of software for implementing two point-source paradigms for measurements of localized diffusion properties: the real-time iontophoresis or pressure method for small ions and the integrative optical imaging method for macromolecules. Selected results are presented. This is followed by a discussion of the application of the MCell Monte Carlo simulation program to determining the importance of geometrical constraints, especially dead-space microdomains, and the possible role of interaction with the extracellular matrix. It is concluded that we can predict the impediment to diffusion of many molecules of practical importance and also use studies of the diffusion of selected molecular probes to reveal the barrier properties of the ECS.

The molecular basis of memory

We propose a tripartite biochemical mechanism for memory. Three physiologic components are involved, namely, the neuron (individual and circuit), the surrounding neural extracellular matrix, and the various trace metals distributed within the matrix. The binding of a metal cation affects a corresponding nanostructure (shrinking, twisting, expansion) and dielectric sensibility of the chelating node (address) within the matrix lattice, sensed by the neuron. The neural extracellular matrix serves as an electro-elastic lattice, wherein neurons manipulate multiple trace metals (n > 10) to encode, store, and decode coginive information. The proposed mechanism explains brains low energy requirements and high rates of storage capacity described in multiples of Avogadro number (N(A) = 6 × 10(23)). Supportive evidence correlates memory loss to trace metal toxicity or deficiency, or breakdown in the delivery/transport of metals to the matrix, or its degradation. Inherited diseases revolving around dysfunctional trace metal metabolism and memory dysfunction, include Alzheimer's disease (Al, Zn, Fe), Wilson's disease (Cu), thalassemia (Fe), and autism (metallothionein). The tripartite mechanism points to the electro-elastic interactions of neurons with trace metals distributed within the neural extracellular matrix, as the molecular underpinning of "synaptic plasticity" affecting short-term memory, long-term memory, and forgetting.

Neuroprotection against iron-induced cell death by perineuronal nets - an in vivo analysis of oxidative stress

Perineuronal nets (PNs) are a specialized form of extracellular matrix, surrounding different types of neurons and mainly consist of chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans connected to hyaluronan, stabilized by link protein and cross-linked via tenascin-R. Due to their polyanionic character, caused by the highly charged chondroitin sulfate glycosaminoglycan and hyaluronan components, PNs might be involved in local ion homeostasis. They are able to scavenge and bind redox-active ions and thus reduce the local oxidative potential. We investigated whether netenwrapped neurons are less vulnerable against iron-induced oxidative processes. Oxidative stress is a key factor in the development and progression of neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease. Iron is believed to contribute to oxidative stress in Alzheimer brains by catalyzing the generation of free radicals. For examining potential neuroprotective effects of PNs, mice were microinjected with 0.2μl of a 20mM solution of FeCl3 into the barrel field while the control group received an equal volume of 0.9% NaCl. Brains were analyzed after time intervals of 24h and 72h. Neuronal degeneration was visualized using Fluoro-Jade B staining. The presence of PNs was assessed by Wisteria floribunda agglutinin histochemistry or aggrecan immunocytochemistry. The analysis showed a significant lower degeneration rate of net-ensheathed neurons in comparison to neurons without PNs. The results suggest a neuroprotective mechanism associated with the presence of PNs against iron-induced cell death.

The extracellular matrix and diffusion barriers in focal cortical dysplasias

Focal cortical dysplasias (FCDs) of the brain are recognized as a frequent cause of intractable epilepsy. To contribute to the current understanding of the mechanisms of epileptogenesis in FCD, our study provides evidence that not only cellular alterations and synaptic transmission, but also changed diffusion properties of the extracellular space (ECS), induced by modified extracellular matrix (ECM) composition and astrogliosis, might be involved in the generation or spread of seizures in FCD. The composition of the ECM in FCD and non-malformed cortex (in 163 samples from 62 patients) was analyzed immunohistochemically and correlated with the corresponding ECS diffusion parameter values determined with the real-time iontophoretic method in freshly resected cortex (i.e. the ECS volume fraction and the geometrical factor tortuosity, describing the hindrances to diffusion in the ECS). The ECS in FCD was shown to differ from that in non-malformed cortex, mainly by the increased accumulation of certain ECM molecules (tenascin R, tenascin C, and versican) or by their reduced expression (brevican), and by the presence of an increased number of astrocytic processes. The consequent increase of ECS diffusion barriers observed in both FCD type I and II (and, at the same time, the enlargement of the ECS volume in FCD type II) may alter the diffusion of neuroactive substances through the ECS, which mediates one of the important modes of intercellular communication in the brain - extrasynaptic volume transmission. Thus, the changed ECM composition and altered ECS diffusion properties might represent additional factors contributing to epileptogenicity in FCD.

Iontophoresis from a micropipet into a porous medium depends on the ζ-potential of the medium

Iontophoresis uses electricity to deliver solutes into living tissue. Often, iontophoretic ejections from micropipets into brain tissue are confined to millisecond pulses for highly localized delivery, but longer pulses are common. As hippocampal tissue has a ζ-potential of approximately -22 mV, we hypothesized that, in the presence of the electric field resulting from the iontophoretic current, electroosmotic flow in the tissue would carry solutes considerably farther than diffusion alone. A steady state solution to this mass transport problem predicts a spherically symmetrical solute concentration profile with the characteristic distance of the profile depending on the ζ-potential of the medium, the current density at the tip, the tip size, and the solute electrophoretic mobility and diffusion coefficient. Of course, the ζ-potential of the tissue is defined by immobilized components of the extracellular matrix as well as cell-surface functional groups. As such, it cannot be changed at will. Therefore, the effect of the ζ-potential of the porous medium on ejections is examined using poly(acrylamide-co-acrylic acid) hydrogels with various magnitudes of ζ-potential, including that similar to hippocampal brain tissue. We demonstrated that nearly neutral fluorescent dextran (3 and 70 kD) solute penetration distance in the hydrogels and OHSCs depends on the magnitude of the applied current, solute properties, and, in the case of the hydrogels, the ζ-potential of the matrix. Steady state solute ejection profiles in gels and cultures of hippocampus can be predicted semiquantitatively.

Extracellular diffusion in laminar brain structures exemplified by hippocampus

Numerous brain structures are composed of distinct layers and such stratification has a profound effect on extracellular diffusion transport in these structures. We have derived a more general form of diffusion equation incorporating inhomogeneities in both the extracellular volume fraction (α) and diffusion permeability (θ). A numerical solution of this equation for a special case of layered environment was employed to analyze diffusion in the CA1 region of hippocampus where stratum pyramidale occupied by the bodies of principal neurons is flanked by stratum radiatum and stratum oriens. Extracellular diffusion in the CA1 region was measured in vitro by real-time iontophoretic and real-time pressure methods, and numerical analysis found that stratum pyramidale had a significantly smaller extracellular volume fraction (α=0.127) and lower diffusion permeability (θ=0.327) than the other two layers (α=0.218, θ=0.447). Stratum pyramidale thus functioned as a diffusion barrier for molecules attempting to cross it. We also demonstrate that unless the detailed properties of all layers are taken into account when diffusion experiments are interpreted, the extracted apparent parameters of the extracellular space lose their physical meaning and capacity to describe any individual layer. Such apparent parameters depend on diffusion distance and direction, giving a false impression of microscopic anisotropy and non-Gaussian behavior. This finding has implications for all diffusion mediated physiological processes as well as for other diffusion methods including integrative optical imaging and diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging.

Extracellular matrix abnormalities in schizophrenia

Emerging evidence points to the involvement of the brain extracellular matrix (ECM) in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia (SZ). Abnormalities affecting several ECM components, including Reelin and chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans (CSPGs), have been described in subjects with this disease. Solid evidence supports the involvement of Reelin, an ECM glycoprotein involved in corticogenesis, synaptic functions and glutamate NMDA receptor regulation, expressed prevalently in distinct populations of GABAergic neurons, which secrete it into the ECM. Marked changes of Reelin expression in SZ have typically been reported in association with GABA-related abnormalities in subjects with SZ and bipolar disorder. Recent findings from our group point to substantial abnormalities affecting CSPGs, a main ECM component, in the amygdala and entorhinal cortex of subjects with schizophrenia, but not bipolar disorder. Striking increases of glial cells expressing CSPGs were accompanied by reductions of perineuronal nets, CSPG- and Reelin-enriched ECM aggregates enveloping distinct neuronal populations. CSPGs developmental and adult functions, including neuronal migration, axon guidance, synaptic and neurotransmission regulation are highly relevant to the pathophysiology of SZ. Together with reports of anomalies affecting several other ECM components, these findings point to the ECM as a key component of the pathology of SZ. We propose that ECM abnormalities may contribute to several aspects of the pathophysiology of this disease, including disrupted connectivity and neuronal migration, synaptic anomalies and altered GABAergic, glutamatergic and dopaminergic neurotransmission.

Compartmentalization from the outside: the extracellular matrix and functional microdomains in the brain

The extracellular matrix (ECM) of the central nervous system is well recognized as a migration and diffusion barrier that allows for the trapping and presentation of growth factors to their receptors at the cell surface. Recent data highlight the importance of ECM molecules as synaptic and perisynaptic scaffolds that direct the clustering of neurotransmitter receptors in the postsynaptic compartment and that present barriers to reduce the lateral diffusion of membrane proteins away from synapses. The ECM also contributes to the migration and differentiation of stem cells in the neurogenic niche and organizes the polarized localization of ion channels and transporters at contacts between astrocytic processes and blood vessels. Thus, the ECM contributes to functional compartmentalization in the brain.

Critical in vitro evaluation of responsive MRI contrast agents for calcium and zinc

The synthesis of two gadolinium(III) complexes that exhibit an increase in proton relaxivity in the presence of added Ca(2+) or Zn(2+) ions is reported. The complexes increase their hydration state from zero to one following metal-ion binding, confirmed by spectral measurements on the corresponding Eu(III) complexes. At a field of 1.4 T and 310 K, modulation of relaxivity of the order of 30-40% was observed in mouse serum in each case. The dissociation constants for Ca(2+) and Zn(2+) binding were sensitive to the presence of added bicarbonate, and were 450 μM (Ca(2+)) and 200 μM (Zn(2+)) in serum. Such systems may, therefore, be considered for use as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast agents to track the restoration of changes in metal-ion concentration in the cerebrospinal fluid of the brain, following neural stimulation.