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Abstract
The identification and quantitation of the main psychoactive component of Salvia divinorum (salvinorin A) in biological specimens are crucial in forensic and clinical toxicology. Despite all the efforts made, its uncontrolled abuse has increased quickly, exposing its users' health to serious risks both in the short and long term. The use of alternative biological matrices in toxicological analyzes can be advantageous as complementary postmortem samples, or in situations when neither blood nor urine can be collected; they may be useful tools in those determinations, providing important information about prior exposure. The aim of this article is to present a brief summary of legal aspects of Salvia divinorum and salvinorin A, including the methods used for the determination of the latter in biological matrices.
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Johnson MW, MacLean KA, Caspers MJ, Prisinzano TE, Griffiths RR. Time course of pharmacokinetic and hormonal effects of inhaled high-dose salvinorin A in humans. J Psychopharmacol 2016; 30:323-9. [PMID: 26880225 PMCID: PMC5289219 DOI: 10.1177/0269881116629125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Salvinorin A is a kappa opioid agonist and the principal psychoactive constituent of the Salvia divinorum plant, which has been used for hallucinogenic effects. Previous research on salvinorin A pharmacokinetics likely underestimated plasma levels typically resulting from the doses administered due to inefficient vaporization and not collecting samples during peak drug effects. Six healthy adults inhaled a single high dose of vaporized salvinorin A (n = 4, 21 mcg/kg; n = 2, 18 mcg/kg). Participant- and monitor-rated effects were assessed every 2 min for 60 min post-inhalation. Blood samples were collected at 13 time points up to 90 min post-inhalation. Drug levels peaked at 2 min and then rapidly decreased. Drug levels were significantly, positively correlated with participant and monitor drug effect ratings. Significant elevations in prolactin were observed beginning 5 min post-inhalation and peaking at 15 min post-inhalation. Cortisol showed inconsistent increases across participants. Hormonal responses were not well correlated with drug levels. This is the first study to demonstrate a direct relationship between changes in plasma levels of salvinorin A and drug effects in humans. The results confirm the efficacy of an inhalation technique for salvinorin A.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew W. Johnson
- Behavioral Pharmacology Research Unit, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 5510 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, MD 21224-6823, USA
| | - Katherine A. MacLean
- Behavioral Pharmacology Research Unit, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 5510 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, MD 21224-6823, USA
| | - Michael J. Caspers
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045-7582, USA
| | - Thomas E. Prisinzano
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045-7582, USA
| | - Roland R. Griffiths
- Behavioral Pharmacology Research Unit, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 5510 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, MD 21224-6823, USA,Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 5510 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, MD 21224-6823, USA
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53
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Mahendran R, Lim HA, Tan JYS, Chua SM, Winslow M. Salvia divinorum: An overview of the usage, misuse, and addiction processes. Asia Pac Psychiatry 2016; 8:23-31. [PMID: 26617400 DOI: 10.1111/appy.12225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2015] [Accepted: 11/02/2015] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Salvia divinorum, a sage plant with leaves that can produce a psychoactive high, has been used for hundreds of years for its psycho-mimetic effects in religious rituals in South America. Salvia has now become popular mainly with adolescents and young adults for the short-lived relatively pleasant experiences many consider a "legal high" and its ready availability through Internet purchases. The main (psycho)active compound in salvia is Salvinorin A, a potent κ-opioid agonist and although the short and long-term effects have not been examined in sufficient detail, it is widely believed to have low addictive potential and low toxicity. Recent findings, however, seem to suggest that Salvinorin A can precipitate psychiatric symptoms and negatively affect cognition. Its ready availability and increasingly widespread use requires clinicians to have knowledge and awareness of its effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rathi Mahendran
- Department of Psychological Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore.,Department of Psychological Medicine, National University Hospital, Singapore.,Duke-NUS Graduate Medical School, Singapore
| | - Haikel A Lim
- Department of Psychological Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Joyce Y S Tan
- Department of Psychological Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Shi Min Chua
- Department of Psychological Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Munidasa Winslow
- Department of Psychological Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore
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Rossi A, Pace S, Tedesco F, Pagano E, Guerra G, Troisi F, Werner M, Roviezzo F, Zjawiony JK, Werz O, Izzo AA, Capasso R. The hallucinogenic diterpene salvinorin A inhibits leukotriene synthesis in experimental models of inflammation. Pharmacol Res 2016; 106:64-71. [PMID: 26859523 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2016.01.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2015] [Revised: 01/14/2016] [Accepted: 01/28/2016] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Leukotrienes (LTs) are lipid mediators derived from arachidonic acid (AA) involved in a number of autoimmune/inflammatory disorders including asthma, allergic rhinitis and cardiovascular diseases. Salvinorin A (SA), a diterpene isolated from the hallucinogenic plant Salvia divinorum, is a well-established analgesic compound, but its anti-inflammatory properties are under-researched and its effects on LT production is unknown to date. Here, we studied the possible effect of SA on LT production and verified its actions on experimental models of inflammation in which LTs play a prominent role. Peritoneal macrophages (PM) stimulated by calcium ionophore A23187 were chosen as in vitro system to evaluate the effect of SA on LT production. Zymosan-induced peritonitis in mice and carrageenan-induced pleurisy in rats were selected as LT-related models to evaluate the effect of SA on inflammation as well as on LT biosynthesis. SA inhibited, in a concentration-dependent manner, A23187-induced LTB4 biosynthesis in isolated PM. In zymosan-induced peritonitis, SA inhibited cell infiltration, myeloperoxidase activity, vascular permeability and LTC4 production in the peritoneal cavity without decreasing the production of prostaglandin E2. In carrageenan-induced pleurisy in rats, a more sophisticated model of acute inflammation related to LTs, SA significantly inhibited LTB4 production in the inflammatory exudates, along with reducing the phlogistic process in the lung. In conclusion, SA inhibited LT production and it was effective in experimental models of inflammation in which LTs play a pivotal role. SA might be considered as a lead compound for the development of drugs useful in LTs-related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonietta Rossi
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples Federico II, Via Domenico Montesano 49, Naples, Italy.
| | - Simona Pace
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples Federico II, Via Domenico Montesano 49, Naples, Italy; Chair of Pharmaceutical/Medicinal Chemistry, Institute of Pharmacy, University of Jena, Philosophenweg 14, Jena, Germany.
| | - Federica Tedesco
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples Federico II, Via Domenico Montesano 49, Naples, Italy.
| | - Ester Pagano
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples Federico II, Via Domenico Montesano 49, Naples, Italy.
| | - Germano Guerra
- Department of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Molise, Campobasso, Italy.
| | - Fabiana Troisi
- Chair of Pharmaceutical/Medicinal Chemistry, Institute of Pharmacy, University of Jena, Philosophenweg 14, Jena, Germany.
| | - Markus Werner
- Chair of Pharmaceutical/Medicinal Chemistry, Institute of Pharmacy, University of Jena, Philosophenweg 14, Jena, Germany.
| | - Fiorentina Roviezzo
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples Federico II, Via Domenico Montesano 49, Naples, Italy.
| | - Jordan K Zjawiony
- Department of BioMolecular Sciences, Division of Pharmacognosy and the Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677, USA.
| | - Oliver Werz
- Chair of Pharmaceutical/Medicinal Chemistry, Institute of Pharmacy, University of Jena, Philosophenweg 14, Jena, Germany.
| | - Angelo A Izzo
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples Federico II, Via Domenico Montesano 49, Naples, Italy.
| | - Raffaele Capasso
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples Federico II, Via Domenico Montesano 49, Naples, Italy.
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55
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Immediate and Persistent Effects of Salvinorin A on the Kappa Opioid Receptor in Rodents, Monitored In Vivo with PET. Neuropsychopharmacology 2015; 40:2865-72. [PMID: 26058662 PMCID: PMC4864638 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2015.159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2015] [Revised: 05/18/2015] [Accepted: 06/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Monitoring changes in opioid receptor binding with positron emission tomography (PET) could lead to a better understanding of tolerance and addiction because altered opioid receptor dynamics following agonist exposure has been linked to tolerance mechanisms. We have studied changes in kappa opioid receptor (KOR) binding availability in vivo with PET following kappa opioid agonist administration. Male Sprague-Dawley rats (n=31) were anesthetized and treated with the (KOR) agonist salvinorin A (0.01-1.8 mg/kg, i.v.) before administration of the KOR selective radiotracer [(11)C]GR103545. When salvinorin A was administered 1 min prior to injection of the radiotracer, [(11)C]GR103545 binding potential (BPND) was decreased in a dose-dependent manner, indicating receptor binding competition. In addition, the unique pharmacokinetics of salvinorin A (half-life ~8 min in non-human primates) allowed us to study the residual impact on KOR after the drug had eliminated from the brain. Salvinorin A was administered up to 5 h prior to [(11)C]GR103545, and the changes in BPND were compared with baseline, 2.5 h, 1 h, and 1 min pretreatment times. At lower doses (0.18 mg/kg and 0.32 mg/kg) we observed no prolonged effect on KOR binding but at 0.60 mg/kg salvinorin A induced a sustained decrease in KOR binding (BPND decreased by 40-49%) which persisted up to 2.5 h post administration, long after salvinorin A had been eliminated from the brain. These data point towards an agonist-induced adaptive response by KOR, the dynamics of which have not been previously studied in vivo with PET.
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Korpi ER, den Hollander B, Farooq U, Vashchinkina E, Rajkumar R, Nutt DJ, Hyytiä P, Dawe GS. Mechanisms of Action and Persistent Neuroplasticity by Drugs of Abuse. Pharmacol Rev 2015; 67:872-1004. [DOI: 10.1124/pr.115.010967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
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57
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Jamshidi RJ, Jacobs BA, Sullivan LC, Chavera TA, Saylor RM, Prisinzano TE, Clarke WP, Berg KA. Functional selectivity of kappa opioid receptor agonists in peripheral sensory neurons. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2015; 355:174-82. [PMID: 26297384 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.115.225896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2015] [Accepted: 08/19/2015] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Activation of kappa opioid receptors (KORs) expressed by peripheral sensory neurons that respond to noxious stimuli (nociceptors) can reduce neurotransmission of pain stimuli from the periphery to the central nervous system. We have previously shown that the antinociception dose-response curve for peripherally restricted doses of the KOR agonist (-)-(trans)-3,4-dichloro-N-methyl-N-[2-(1-pyrrolidinyl)cyclohexyl]benzeneacetamide (U50488) has an inverted U shape. Here, we found that the downward phase of the U50488 dose-response curve was blocked by an inhibitor of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) activation U0126. Local administration of the selective KOR agonist salvinorin A (Sal-A), also resulted in an inverted U-shaped curve; however, the downward phase was insensitive to U0126. By contrast, inhibition of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) partially blocked the downward phase of the dose-response curve to Sal-A, suggesting a role for JNK. In cultures of peripheral sensory neurons, U50488 and Sal-A inhibited adenylyl cyclase activity with similar efficacies; however, their ability to activate ERK and JNK differed. Whereas U50488 activated ERK but not JNK, Sal-A activated JNK but not ERK. Moreover, although both U50488 and Sal-A produced homologous desensitization, desensitization to U50488 was blocked by inhibition of ERK activation, whereas desensitization to Sal-A was blocked by inhibition of JNK. Substitution of an ethoxymethyl ether for the C2 position acetyl group of Sal-A reduced stimulation of JNK, prevented desensitization by ethoxymethyl ether for the C2 position acetyl group of Sal-A, and resulted in a monotonic antinociception dose-response curve. Collectively, these data demonstrate the functional selectivity of KOR ligands for signaling in peripheral sensory neurons, which results in differential effects on behavioral responses in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raehannah J Jamshidi
- Department of Pharmacology (R.J.J., B.A.J., L.C.S., T.A.C., W.P.C., K.A.B.), University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, Texas; and Department of Medicinal Chemistry (R.M.S., T.E.P.), University of Kansas School of Pharmacy, Lawrence, Kansas
| | - Blaine A Jacobs
- Department of Pharmacology (R.J.J., B.A.J., L.C.S., T.A.C., W.P.C., K.A.B.), University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, Texas; and Department of Medicinal Chemistry (R.M.S., T.E.P.), University of Kansas School of Pharmacy, Lawrence, Kansas
| | - Laura C Sullivan
- Department of Pharmacology (R.J.J., B.A.J., L.C.S., T.A.C., W.P.C., K.A.B.), University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, Texas; and Department of Medicinal Chemistry (R.M.S., T.E.P.), University of Kansas School of Pharmacy, Lawrence, Kansas
| | - Teresa A Chavera
- Department of Pharmacology (R.J.J., B.A.J., L.C.S., T.A.C., W.P.C., K.A.B.), University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, Texas; and Department of Medicinal Chemistry (R.M.S., T.E.P.), University of Kansas School of Pharmacy, Lawrence, Kansas
| | - Rachel M Saylor
- Department of Pharmacology (R.J.J., B.A.J., L.C.S., T.A.C., W.P.C., K.A.B.), University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, Texas; and Department of Medicinal Chemistry (R.M.S., T.E.P.), University of Kansas School of Pharmacy, Lawrence, Kansas
| | - Thomas E Prisinzano
- Department of Pharmacology (R.J.J., B.A.J., L.C.S., T.A.C., W.P.C., K.A.B.), University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, Texas; and Department of Medicinal Chemistry (R.M.S., T.E.P.), University of Kansas School of Pharmacy, Lawrence, Kansas
| | - William P Clarke
- Department of Pharmacology (R.J.J., B.A.J., L.C.S., T.A.C., W.P.C., K.A.B.), University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, Texas; and Department of Medicinal Chemistry (R.M.S., T.E.P.), University of Kansas School of Pharmacy, Lawrence, Kansas
| | - Kelly A Berg
- Department of Pharmacology (R.J.J., B.A.J., L.C.S., T.A.C., W.P.C., K.A.B.), University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, Texas; and Department of Medicinal Chemistry (R.M.S., T.E.P.), University of Kansas School of Pharmacy, Lawrence, Kansas
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58
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Lee HK, Zhang L, Smith MD, Walewska A, Vellore NA, Baron R, McIntosh JM, White HS, Olivera BM, Bulaj G. A marine analgesic peptide, Contulakin-G, and neurotensin are distinct agonists for neurotensin receptors: uncovering structural determinants of desensitization properties. Front Pharmacol 2015; 6:11. [PMID: 25713532 PMCID: PMC4322620 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2015.00011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2014] [Accepted: 01/12/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurotensin receptors have been studied as molecular targets for the treatment of pain, schizophrenia, addiction, or cancer. Neurotensin (NT) and Contulakin-G, a glycopeptide isolated from a predatory cone snail Conus geographus, share a sequence similarity at the C-terminus, which is critical for activation of neurotensin receptors. Both peptides are potent analgesics, although affinity and agonist potency of Contulakin-G toward neurotensin receptors are significantly lower, as compared to those for NT. In this work, we show that the weaker agonist properties of Contulakin-G result in inducing significantly less desensitization of neurotensin receptors and preserving their cell-surface density. Structure-activity relationship (SAR) studies suggested that both glycosylation and charged amino acid residues in Contulakin-G or NT played important roles in desensitizing neurotensin receptors. Computational modeling studies of human neurotensin receptor NTS1 and Contulakin-G confirmed the role of glycosylation in weakening interactions with the receptors. Based on available SAR data, we designed, synthesized, and characterized an analog of Contulakin-G in which the glycosylated amino acid residue, Gal-GalNAc-Thr10, was replaced by memantine-Glu10 residue. This analog exhibited comparable agonist potency and weaker desensitization properties as compared to that of Contulakin-G, while producing analgesia in the animal model of acute pain following systemic administration. We discuss our study in the context of feasibility and safety of developing NT therapeutic agents with improved penetration across the blood-brain barrier. Our work supports engineering peptide-based agonists with diverse abilities to desensitize G-protein coupled receptors and further emphasizes opportunities for conotoxins as novel pharmacological tools and drug candidates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hee-Kyoung Lee
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, Skaggs Research Institute, University of Utah Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Liuyin Zhang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, Skaggs Research Institute, University of Utah Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Misty D Smith
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Utah Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Aleksandra Walewska
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, Skaggs Research Institute, University of Utah Salt Lake City, UT, USA ; Faculty of Chemistry, University of Gdansk Gdansk, Poland
| | - Nadeem A Vellore
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, Skaggs Research Institute, University of Utah Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Riccardo Baron
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, Skaggs Research Institute, University of Utah Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - J Michael McIntosh
- Department of Biology, University of Utah Salt Lake City, UT, USA ; Department of Psychiatry, University of Utah Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - H Steve White
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Utah Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | | | - Grzegorz Bulaj
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, Skaggs Research Institute, University of Utah Salt Lake City, UT, USA
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59
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Sasmal PK, Krishna CV, Adabala SS, Roshaiah M, Rawoof KA, Thadi E, Sukumar KP, Cheera S, Abbineni C, Rao KN, Prasanthi A, Nijhawan K, Jaleel M, Iyer LR, Chaitanya TK, Tiwari NK, Krishna NL, Potluri V, Khanna I, Frimurer TM, Lückmann M, Rist Ø, Elster L, Högberg T. Optimisation of in silico derived 2-aminobenzimidazole hits as unprecedented selective kappa opioid receptor agonists. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2015; 25:887-92. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2014.12.064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2014] [Revised: 12/15/2014] [Accepted: 12/19/2014] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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60
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Riley AP, Groer CE, Young D, Ewald AW, Kivell BM, Prisinzano TE. Synthesis and κ-opioid receptor activity of furan-substituted salvinorin A analogues. J Med Chem 2014; 57:10464-75. [PMID: 25426797 PMCID: PMC4281103 DOI: 10.1021/jm501521d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The neoclerodane diterpene salvinorin A, found in the leaves of Salvia divinorum, is a potent κ-opioid receptor agonist, making it an attractive scaffold for development into a treatment for substance abuse. Although several successful semisynthetic studies have been performed to elucidate structure-activity relationships, the lack of analogues with substitutions to the furan ring of salvinorin A has prevented a thorough understanding of its role in binding to the κ-opioid receptor. Herein we report the synthesis of several salvinorin A derivatives with modified furan rings. Evaluation of these compounds in a functional assay indicated that sterically less demanding substitutions are preferred, suggesting the furan ring is bound in a congested portion of the binding pocket. The most potent of the analogues successfully reduced drug-seeking behavior in an animal model of drug-relapse without producing the sedation observed with other κ-opioid agonists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew P Riley
- Department of Chemistry and ‡Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, The University of Kansas , Lawrence, Kansas 66045, United States
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White KL, Robinson JE, Zhu H, DiBerto JF, Polepally PR, Zjawiony JK, Nichols DE, Malanga CJ, Roth BL. The G protein-biased κ-opioid receptor agonist RB-64 is analgesic with a unique spectrum of activities in vivo. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2014; 352:98-109. [PMID: 25320048 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.114.216820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 153] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The hypothesis that functionally selective G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) agonists may have enhanced therapeutic benefits has revitalized interest for many GPCR targets. In particular, although κ-opioid receptor (KOR) agonists are analgesic with a low risk of dependence and abuse, their use is limited by a propensity to induce sedation, motor incoordination, hallucinations, and dysphoria-like states. Several laboratories have produced a body of work suggesting that G protein-biased KOR agonists might be analgesic with fewer side effects. Although that has been an intriguing hypothesis, suitable KOR-selective and G protein-biased agonists have not been available to test this idea. Here we provide data using a G protein-biased agonist, RB-64 (22-thiocyanatosalvinorin A), which suggests that KOR-mediated G protein signaling induces analgesia and aversion, whereas β-arrestin-2 signaling may be associated with motor incoordination. Additionally, unlike unbiased KOR agonists, the G protein-biased ligand RB-64 does not induce sedation and does not have anhedonia-like actions, suggesting that a mechanism other than G protein signaling mediates these effects. Our findings provide the first evidence for a highly selective and G protein-biased tool compound for which many, but not all, of the negative side effects of KOR agonists can be minimized by creating G protein-biased KOR agonists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kate L White
- Department of Pharmacology (K.L.W., H.Z., D.E.N., B.L.R.), Department of Neurology (J.E.R., J.F.D., C.J.M.), and Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies (J.E.R., C.J.M.), University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina; and Department of BioMolecular Sciences, Division of Pharmacognosy, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, University, Mississippi (P.R.P., J.K.Z.)
| | - J Elliott Robinson
- Department of Pharmacology (K.L.W., H.Z., D.E.N., B.L.R.), Department of Neurology (J.E.R., J.F.D., C.J.M.), and Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies (J.E.R., C.J.M.), University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina; and Department of BioMolecular Sciences, Division of Pharmacognosy, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, University, Mississippi (P.R.P., J.K.Z.)
| | - Hu Zhu
- Department of Pharmacology (K.L.W., H.Z., D.E.N., B.L.R.), Department of Neurology (J.E.R., J.F.D., C.J.M.), and Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies (J.E.R., C.J.M.), University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina; and Department of BioMolecular Sciences, Division of Pharmacognosy, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, University, Mississippi (P.R.P., J.K.Z.)
| | - Jeffrey F DiBerto
- Department of Pharmacology (K.L.W., H.Z., D.E.N., B.L.R.), Department of Neurology (J.E.R., J.F.D., C.J.M.), and Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies (J.E.R., C.J.M.), University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina; and Department of BioMolecular Sciences, Division of Pharmacognosy, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, University, Mississippi (P.R.P., J.K.Z.)
| | - Prabhakar R Polepally
- Department of Pharmacology (K.L.W., H.Z., D.E.N., B.L.R.), Department of Neurology (J.E.R., J.F.D., C.J.M.), and Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies (J.E.R., C.J.M.), University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina; and Department of BioMolecular Sciences, Division of Pharmacognosy, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, University, Mississippi (P.R.P., J.K.Z.)
| | - Jordan K Zjawiony
- Department of Pharmacology (K.L.W., H.Z., D.E.N., B.L.R.), Department of Neurology (J.E.R., J.F.D., C.J.M.), and Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies (J.E.R., C.J.M.), University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina; and Department of BioMolecular Sciences, Division of Pharmacognosy, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, University, Mississippi (P.R.P., J.K.Z.)
| | - David E Nichols
- Department of Pharmacology (K.L.W., H.Z., D.E.N., B.L.R.), Department of Neurology (J.E.R., J.F.D., C.J.M.), and Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies (J.E.R., C.J.M.), University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina; and Department of BioMolecular Sciences, Division of Pharmacognosy, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, University, Mississippi (P.R.P., J.K.Z.)
| | - C J Malanga
- Department of Pharmacology (K.L.W., H.Z., D.E.N., B.L.R.), Department of Neurology (J.E.R., J.F.D., C.J.M.), and Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies (J.E.R., C.J.M.), University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina; and Department of BioMolecular Sciences, Division of Pharmacognosy, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, University, Mississippi (P.R.P., J.K.Z.)
| | - Bryan L Roth
- Department of Pharmacology (K.L.W., H.Z., D.E.N., B.L.R.), Department of Neurology (J.E.R., J.F.D., C.J.M.), and Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies (J.E.R., C.J.M.), University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina; and Department of BioMolecular Sciences, Division of Pharmacognosy, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, University, Mississippi (P.R.P., J.K.Z.)
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Polepally PR, Huben K, Vardy E, Setola V, Mosier PD, Roth BL, Zjawiony JK. Michael acceptor approach to the design of new salvinorin A-based high affinity ligands for the kappa-opioid receptor. Eur J Med Chem 2014; 85:818-29. [PMID: 25193297 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2014.07.077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2014] [Revised: 06/19/2014] [Accepted: 07/22/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The neoclerodane diterpenoid salvinorin A is a major secondary metabolite isolated from the psychoactive plant Salvia divinorum. Salvinorin A has been shown to have high affinity and selectivity for the κ-opioid receptor (KOR). To study the ligand-receptor interactions that occur between salvinorin A and the KOR, a new series of salvinorin A derivatives bearing potentially reactive Michael acceptor functional groups at C-2 was synthesized and used to probe the salvinorin A binding site. The κ-, δ-, and μ-opioid receptor (KOR, DOR and MOR, respectively) binding affinities and KOR efficacies were measured for the new compounds. Although none showed wash-resistant irreversible binding, most of them showed high affinity for the KOR, and some exhibited dual affinity to KOR and MOR. Molecular modeling techniques based on the recently-determined crystal structure of the KOR combined with results from mutagenesis studies, competitive binding, functional assays and structure-activity relationships, and previous salvinorin A-KOR interaction models were used to identify putative interaction modes of the new compounds with the KOR and MOR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prabhakar R Polepally
- Department of BioMolecular Sciences, Division of Pharmacognosy, Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677-1848, USA
| | - Krzysztof Huben
- Department of BioMolecular Sciences, Division of Pharmacognosy, Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677-1848, USA; Institute of Organic Chemistry, Technical University of Lodz, 90-924 Lodz, Poland
| | - Eyal Vardy
- Department of Pharmacology, Division of Chemical Biology and Medicinal Chemistry, Medical School, NIMH Psychoactive Drug Screening Program, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Vincent Setola
- Department of Pharmacology, Division of Chemical Biology and Medicinal Chemistry, Medical School, NIMH Psychoactive Drug Screening Program, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Philip D Mosier
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Institute for Structural Biology and Drug Discovery, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298-0540, USA
| | - Bryan L Roth
- Department of Pharmacology, Division of Chemical Biology and Medicinal Chemistry, Medical School, NIMH Psychoactive Drug Screening Program, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Jordan K Zjawiony
- Department of BioMolecular Sciences, Division of Pharmacognosy, Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677-1848, USA.
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Vasiljevik T, Groer CE, Lehner K, Navarro H, Prisinzano TE. Studies toward the Development of Antiproliferative Neoclerodanes from Salvinorin A. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2014; 77:1817-1824. [PMID: 25075762 PMCID: PMC4143179 DOI: 10.1021/np5002048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The success rate for central nervous system (CNS) drug candidates in the clinic is relatively low compared to the industry average across other therapeutic areas. Penetration through the blood-brain barrier (BBB) to reach the therapeutic target is a major obstacle in development. The rapid CNS penetration of salvinorin A has suggested that the neoclerodane nucleus offers an excellent scaffold for developing antiproliferative compounds that enter the CNS. The Liebeskind-Srogl reaction was used as the main carbon-carbon bond-forming step toward the synthesis of quinone-containing salvinorin A analogues. Quinone-containing salvinorin A analogues were shown to have antiproliferative activity against the MCF7 breast cancer cell line, but show no significant activity at the κ-opioid receptors. In an in vitro model of BBB penetration, quinone-containing salvinorin A analogues were shown to passively diffuse across the cell monolayer. The analogues, however, are substrates of P-glycoprotein, and thus further modification of the molecules is needed to reduce the affinity for the efflux transporter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamara Vasiljevik
- Department
of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045, United States
| | - Chad E. Groer
- Department
of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045, United States
| | - Kurt Lehner
- Department
of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045, United States
| | - Hernan Navarro
- Organic
and Medicinal Chemistry, Research Triangle
Institute, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709, United States
| | - Thomas E. Prisinzano
- Department
of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045, United States
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Freeman KB, Naylor JE, Prisinzano TE, Woolverton WL. Assessment of the kappa opioid agonist, salvinorin A, as a punisher of drug self-administration in monkeys. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2014; 231:2751-8. [PMID: 24481567 PMCID: PMC4074245 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-014-3436-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2013] [Accepted: 01/05/2014] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Drugs can function as punishers. However, work on the study of drugs as punishers is limited, as is the range of compounds known to function as punishers. Kappa opioid agonists, which have received much experimental attention as potential therapeutics for drug abuse, reportedly produce aversive effects. However, kappa agonists have yet to be tested as punishers of behavior. OBJECTIVE The goal of the current study was to determine if a kappa agonist could function as a punisher of drug self-administration. METHOD In separate experiments, monkeys were allowed to choose in a two-lever choice design between intravenous injections of equal doses of either cocaine (0.1 mg/kg/injection on each lever) or remifentanil (0.1 μg/kg/injection on each lever) when one of the two options was mixed with various doses of the kappa agonist, salvinorin A. RESULTS Choice for the cocaine and remifentanil options that were combined with salvinorin A decreased as a function of salvinorin A dose in all monkeys. However, operant response rates were not systematically affected by salvinorin A administration. CONCLUSION The present findings demonstrate that the kappa agonist, salvinorin A, can punish self-administration of a psychotimulant, cocaine, and a mu opioid, remifentanil. In consideration of these findings, it may be possible to curtail the abuse of some drugs by contingently delivering kappa agonists (e.g., as combination formularies for prescription medications).
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin B Freeman
- Division of Neurobiology and Behavior Research, Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, The University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS, 39216, USA,
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Wang Y, Rogachev V, Wolter M, Gruner M, Jäger A, Metz P. An Approach to the Bicyclic C-5-C-17/C-19-C-20 (BC) Portion of Neoclerodane Diterpenes by Intramolecular Diels-Alder Reaction. European J Org Chem 2014. [DOI: 10.1002/ejoc.201402165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Heinrich M, Frei Haller B, Leonti M. A perspective on natural products research and ethnopharmacology in Mexico: the eagle and the serpent on the prickly pear cactus. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2014; 77:678-689. [PMID: 24559070 DOI: 10.1021/np4009927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Mexico's extraordinarily rich cultural and floristic diversity has fascinated explorers and researchers ever since the "New World" was discovered for and by Europeans. For many decades, natural product research has been a very active field of research in Mexico, and there also are some ongoing ethnopharmacological research efforts. This review provides an overview and critical appraisal on some key developments in these fields and examples of medicinal plants used by indigenous communities that have become of great local importance in Mexican popular medicine. In this review, the focus is on plants with effects on the CNS, diabetes, metabolic syndrome, inflammatory processes, and gastrointestinal disorders. While some of the major food plants consumed worldwide originate from southern North America, only very few medicinal plants have become of major global importance. Opuntia species are now used increasingly to manage diabetes and metabolic syndrome and represent an example of a novel medicinal product/supplement. Undoubtedly, narcotic and mind-altering drugs both have received the widest scientific interest and have attracted considerable popular attention. The history of use of the indigenous Mexican Materia Medica in the context of research on local and popular resources specifically with regard to the diverse challenges in the context of studying the world's biodiversity and the development of comparative and semiquantitative ethnobotanical research methods is discussed herein. Natural product and ethnopharmacological research in Mexico seems to have been influenced by the political and societal developments originating from the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and subsequent conventions, which have not yet had the desired effect of giving value to these local resources, as they might deserve. Their equitable and sustainable implementation remains a challenge. Natural product research and ethnopharmacology will play a key role in developing an adequate evidence base for such products derived from local and traditional knowledge in Mexico.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Heinrich
- Centre for Pharmacognosy and Phytotherapy, UCL School of Pharmacy, University of London , 29-39 Brunswick Square, London WC1N 1AX, United Kingdom
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Abstract
Novel classes of synthetic drugs, including synthetic cathinones ("bath salts") and synthetic cannabinoids ("spice" or "K2"), have recently emerged as popular drugs of abuse. Salvia divinorum, a naturally occurring herb, has gained popularity in the last decade as a hallucinogenic as well. The legal status of these substances has been undergoing rapid changes and has been confusing to lawmakers and medical practitioners alike. We present an up-to-date information about the legality of these substances. We also discuss the historical background, chemical composition, patterns of abuse, clinical presentations, laboratory analysis, and management strategies for these drugs, with an emphasis on synthetic cathinones.
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Caspers MJ, Williams TD, Lovell KM, Lozama A, Butelman ER, Kreek MJ, Johnson M, Griffiths R, Maclean K, Prisinzano TE. LC-MS/MS quantification of salvinorin A from biological fluids. ANALYTICAL METHODS : ADVANCING METHODS AND APPLICATIONS 2013; 5:10.1039/C3AY40810H. [PMID: 24416081 PMCID: PMC3885280 DOI: 10.1039/c3ay40810h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
A facile method for quantifying the concentration of the powerful and widely available hallucinogen salvinorin A (a selective kappa opioid agonist) from non-human primate cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and human plasma has been developed using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) in positive electrospray ionization (ESI) mode. With CSF solid phase extraction can be avoided completely by simply diluting each sample to 10 % (v/v) acetonitrile, 1 % (v/v) formic acid and injecting under high aqueous conditions for analyte focusing. Extensive plasma sample preparation was investigated including protein precipitation, SPE column selection, and plasma particulate removal. Human plasma samples were centrifuged at 21,000 × gravity for 4 minutes to obtain clear particulate-free plasma, from which 300 μl was spiked with internal standard and loaded onto a C18 SPE column with a 100 mg mL-1 loading capacity. Guard columns (C18, hand packed 1 mm × 20 mm) were exchanged after backpressure increased above 4600psi, about 250 injections. A shallow acetonitrile/water gradient was used, 29 to 33% CH3CN over 8 minutes to elute salvinorin A. Reduction of chemical noise was achieved using tandem mass spectrometry with multiple reaction monitoring while sensitivity increases were observed using a 50 μL injection volume onto a small bore analytical column (C18, 1 mm ID × 50 mm) thus increasing peak concentration. Limits of quantification were found to be 0.0125 ng mL-1 (CSF) and 0.05 ng mL-1 (plasma) with interday precision and accuracy below 1.7 % and 9.42 % (CSF) and 3.47 % and 12.37 % (plasma) respectively. This method was used to determine the concentration of salvinorin A from an in vivo Rhesus monkey study and a trial of healthy human research participants, using behaviorally active doses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Caspers
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045, United States
| | - Todd D Williams
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045, United States
| | - Kimberly M Lovell
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045, United States
| | - Anthony Lozama
- Division of Medicinal & Natural Products Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | | | | | - Matthew Johnson
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21224, United States
| | - Roland Griffiths
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21224, United States
| | - Katherine Maclean
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21224, United States
| | - Thomas E Prisinzano
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045, United States
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Munro TA, Xu W, Ho DM, Liu-Chen LY, Cohen BM. Studies toward bivalent κ opioids derived from salvinorin A: heteromethylation of the furan ring reduces affinity. Beilstein J Org Chem 2013; 9:2916-24. [PMID: 24454571 PMCID: PMC3896271 DOI: 10.3762/bjoc.9.328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2013] [Accepted: 11/21/2013] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The recent crystal structure of the κ-opioid receptor (κ-OR) revealed, unexpectedly, that the antagonist JDTic is a bivalent ligand: in addition to the orthosteric pocket occupied by morphinans, JDTic also occupies a distinct (allotopic) pocket. Mutagenesis data suggest that salvinorin A (1) also binds to this allotopic pocket, adjacent to the aspartate residue that anchors the basic nitrogen atom of classical opiates (Asp138). It has been suggested that an H-bond donor appended to 1 might interact with Asp138, increasing affinity. Such a bivalent ligand might also possess altered functional selectivity. Based on modeling and known N-furanylmethyl opioid antagonists, we appended H-bond donors to the furan ring of 1. (Dimethylamino)methyl groups at C-15 or C-16 abolished affinity for κ-OR. Hydroxymethylation at C-16 was tolerated, but 15,16-bis-hydroxymethylation was not. Since allosteric modulators may go undetected in binding assays, we also tested these and other low-affinity derivatives of 1 for allosteric modulation of dynorphin A in the [35S]GTPγS assay. No modulation was detected. As an alternative attachment point for bivalent derivatives, we prepared the 2-(hydroxyethoxy)methyl ether, which retained high affinity for κ-OR. We discuss alternative design strategies for linked, fused or merged bivalent derivatives of 1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas A Munro
- McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA 02478, USA and Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA ; School of Chemistry and Bio21 Institute, University of Melbourne, Parkville 3010, Australia
| | - Wei Xu
- Center for Substance Abuse Research and Department of Pharmacology, Temple University School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA
| | - Douglas M Ho
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge MA 02138, USA
| | - Lee-Yuan Liu-Chen
- Center for Substance Abuse Research and Department of Pharmacology, Temple University School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA
| | - Bruce M Cohen
- McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA 02478, USA and Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA
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Wilson B, Tavakoli H, DeCecchis D, Mahadev V. Synthetic Cannabinoids, Synthetic Cathinones, and Other Emerging Drugs of Abuse. Psychiatr Ann 2013. [DOI: 10.3928/00485713-20131206-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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Riley AP, Day VW, Navarro HA, Prisinzano TE. Palladium-catalyzed transformations of salvinorin A, a neoclerodane diterpene from Salvia divinorum. Org Lett 2013; 15:5936-9. [PMID: 24246026 DOI: 10.1021/ol4027528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Transformations that selectively modify the furan ring present in a variety of naturals products would be useful in the synthesis of biological probes but remain largely underexplored. The neoclerodane diterpene salvinorin A, isolated from Salvia divinorum, is an example of a furan-containing natural product. Following selective bromination of salvinorin A, Suzuki-Miyaura and Sonogashira couplings were accomplished in moderate to good yields without hydrolyzing the labile C-2 acetate or altering the stereochemistry of the epimerizable centers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew P Riley
- Departments of Chemistry and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Kansas , 1251 Wescoe Hall Drive, Lawrence, Kansas 66045-7572, United States , and Research Triangle Institute , Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709, United States
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Paudel MK, Shirota O, Sasaki-Tabata K, Tanaka H, Sekita S, Morimoto S. Development of an enzyme immunoassay using a monoclonal antibody against the psychoactive diterpenoid salvinorin A. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2013; 76:1654-1660. [PMID: 23987562 DOI: 10.1021/np400358n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Salvinorin A (1), the main active constituent in Salvia divinorum, is a highly selective kappa-opioid receptor agonist with hallucinogenic effects, which is regulated in several countries. In the present study, a monoclonal antibody (mAb) against 1 was prepared, and an indirect competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (icELISA) system was developed for the detection of salvinorins. To raise mAbs against 1, salvinorin B (2) hemisuccinate was synthesized and used to prepare the immunogen 2-bovine serum albumin conjugate. This technique was used to prepare a hybridoma cell line, 3D5, which secreted a mAb that recognized 1. The mAb was shown to have specificity for 1 and other salvinorins in cross-reactivity tests. The intra-assay calibration range by icELISA using the mAb against 1 was 0.0195-0.625 μg/mL. After validating the icELISA using intra- and interassays, a recovery experiment and analysis of several plants in the family Lamiaceae, including S. divinorum, confirmed that the analytical method based on ELISA is not only simple but also precise, accurate, sensitive, and sufficiently reliable. The results indicate that icELISA is a useful tool in the identification of S. divinorum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madan Kumar Paudel
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyushu University , 3-1-1 Maidashi, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka 812-8582, Japan
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Li YY, Tang XL, Jiang T, Li PF, Li PL, Li GQ. Bioassay-guided isolation of neo-clerodane diterpenoids from Scutellaria barbata. JOURNAL OF ASIAN NATURAL PRODUCTS RESEARCH 2013; 15:941-949. [PMID: 23909895 DOI: 10.1080/10286020.2013.821983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Bioassay-guided isolation of the aerial part of Scutellaria barbata yielded three new neo-clerodane diterpenoids scutebatas P-R (1-3), together with two known ones: scutebata E (4) and scutebarbatine B (5). The chemical structures of the isolated compounds were elucidated by spectroscopic methods (NMR and MS) and by comparison with the spectroscopic data reported in the literature. All compounds except 3 showed weak cytotoxicity with IC50 values ranging from 35.11 to 42.73 μM against K562 cell lines, and compounds 1, 2, and 5 also displayed weak activities against HL60 cell lines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan-Yuan Li
- a Key Laboratory of Marine Drugs, Chinese Ministry of Education, School of Medicine and Pharmacy, Ocean University of China , Qingdao , 266003 , China
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Zawilska JB, Wojcieszak J. Salvia divinorum: from Mazatec medicinal and hallucinogenic plant to emerging recreational drug. Hum Psychopharmacol 2013; 28:403-12. [PMID: 23794315 DOI: 10.1002/hup.2304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2012] [Accepted: 02/19/2013] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Salvia divinorum is a sage endemic to a small region of Mexico and has been traditionally used by the Mazatec Indians for divination and spiritual healing. Recently, it has gained increased popularity as a recreational drug, used by adolescents and young adults as an alternative to marijuana and LSD. Salvinorin A, the major active ingredient of the plant, is considered to be the most potent known hallucinogen of natural origin. This review surveys the current state of knowledge on the neurochemical, pharmacokinetic, and pharmacological properties of salvinorin A, the trends and motivation behind S. divinorum use, and the health problems among users of the plant's products. S. divinorum induces intense, but short-lived, psychedelic-like changes in mood and perception, with concomitant hallucinations and disorientation. Many websites have misinterpreted the limited existing research-based information on the side effects of salvia as evidence for its safety. However, data accumulated over the last few years indicate that potential health risks are associated with the use of S. divinorum, especially by teenagers, users of other substances of abuse, and individuals with underlying psychotic disturbances. Taken together, the data presented in this review point to the need for further basic and clinical studies to create a basis for the development of well-addressed prevention and treatment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jolanta B Zawilska
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, Medical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland
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Margalho C, Gallardo E, Castanheira A, Vieira DN, López-Rivadulla M, Real FC. A validated procedure for detection and quantitation of salvinorin a in pericardial fluid, vitreous humor, whole blood and plasma using solid phase extraction and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2013; 1304:203-10. [PMID: 23871557 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2013.07.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2013] [Revised: 06/11/2013] [Accepted: 07/08/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The use of vitreous humor and pericardial fluid as alternative matrices to blood and plasma in the field of forensic toxicology is described to quantitate low levels of Salvinorin A using ethion as internal standard. The method was optimized and fully validated using international accepted guidelines. The developed methodology utilizes a solid phase extraction procedure coupled to gas chromatography mass spectrometry operated in the selected ion monitoring mode. The method was linear in the range of 5.0-100ng/mL with determination coefficients higher than 0.99 in 100μL of vitreous humor and in 250μL of each matrix pericardial fluid, whole blood and plasma. The limits of detection and quantitation were experimentally determined as 5.0ng/mL, intra-day precision, intermediate precision and accuracy were in conformity with the criteria normally accepted in bioanalytical method validation. The sample cleanup step presented mean efficiencies between 80 and 106% in the different biological specimens analyzed. According to the low volumes of samples used, and the low limits achieved using a single quadrupole mass spectrometer, which is available in most laboratories, we can conclude that the validated methodology is sensitive and simple and is suitable for the application in forensic toxicology laboratories for the routine analysis of Salvinorin A in both conventional and unconventional biological samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cláudia Margalho
- National Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences (INMLCF, I.P.) - Centre Branch, Coimbra, Portugal.
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Abstract
The neoclerodane diterpene salvinorin A is the major active component of the hallucinogenic mint plant Salvia divinorum Epling and Játiva (Lamiaceae). Since the finding that salvinorin A exerts its potent psychotropic actions through the activation of opioid receptors, the site of action of morphine and related analogues, there has been much interest in elucidating the underlying mechanisms behind its effects. These effects are particularly remarkable because (1) salvinorin A is the first reported non-nitrogenous opioid receptor agonist and (2) its effects are not mediated through the previously investigated targets of psychotomimetics. This Perspective outlines our research program, illustrating a new direction to the development of tools to further elucidate the biological mechanisms of drug tolerance and dependence. The information gained from these efforts is expected to facilitate the design of novel agents to treat pain, drug abuse, and other central nervous system disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas E Prisinzano
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Kansas , 1251 Wescoe Hall Drive, 4070 Malott Hall, Lawrence, Kansas 66045-7572, United States.
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Vandrey R, Johnson MW, Johnson PS, Khalil MA. Novel Drugs of Abuse: A Snapshot of an Evolving Marketplace. ADOLESCENT PSYCHIATRY 2013; 3:123-134. [PMID: 24921061 DOI: 10.2174/2210676611303020003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & OBJECTIVES Over the past decade, non-medical use of novel drugs has proliferated worldwide. In most cases these are synthetic drugs first synthesized in academic or pharmaceutical laboratories for research or drug development purposes, but also include naturally occurring substances that do not fit the typical pharmacological or behavioral profile of traditional illicit substances. Perhaps most unique to this generation of new drugs is that they are being sold over the counter and on the Internet as "legal highs" or substitutes for traditional illicit drugs such as cannabis, cocaine, amphetamines, MDMA, and LSD. The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of novel drugs in current use, including the epidemiology of use and toxicologic and pharmacological properties, and to offer some guidelines to clinicians who see patients experiencing adverse effects from these drugs. METHOD We review the known scientific literature on recently introduced synthetic drug types, synthetic cannabinoids and synthetic cathinones, and the hallucinogen Salvia divinorum. RESULTS These substances comprise part of a rapidly evolving and controversial drug market that has challenged definitions of what is legal and illegal, has benefitted from open commercial sales without regulatory oversight, and is noteworthy for the pace at which new substances are introduced. CONCLUSIONS This emerging trend in substance use presents significant and unique public health and criminal justice challenges. At this time, these substances are not detected in routine drug screens and substance-specific treatment for cases of use-related toxicity are not available. Clinicians are encouraged to learn characteristic signs associated with misuse of novel drugs to recognize cases in their practice, and are recommended to use a symptom-specific approach for treatment in each case.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan Vandrey
- Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Matthew W Johnson
- Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Patrick S Johnson
- Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Miral A Khalil
- Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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Kappa-opioid receptor-selective dicarboxylic ester-derived salvinorin A ligands. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2013; 23:2860-2. [PMID: 23587424 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2013.03.111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2013] [Revised: 03/22/2013] [Accepted: 03/27/2013] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Salvinorin A, the active ingredient of the hallucinogenic plant Salvia divinorum is the most potent known naturally occurring hallucinogen and is a selective κ-opioid receptor agonist. To better understand the ligand-receptor interactions, a series of dicarboxylic ester-type of salvinorin A derivatives were synthesized and evaluated for their binding affinity at κ-, δ- and μ-opioid receptors. Most of the analogues show high affinity to the κ-opioid receptor. Methyl malonyl derivative 4 shows the highest binding affinity (Ki=2nM), analogues 5, 7, and 14 exhibit significant affinity for the κ-receptor (Ki=21, 36 and 39nM).
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Dose-related effects of salvinorin A in humans: dissociative, hallucinogenic, and memory effects. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2013; 226:381-92. [PMID: 23135605 PMCID: PMC3581702 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-012-2912-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2012] [Accepted: 10/23/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Salvinorin A is a kappa opioid agonist and the principal psychoactive constituent of the plant Salvia divinorum, which has increased in popularity as a recreational drug over the past decade. Few human studies have examined salvinorin A. OBJECTIVE This double-blind, placebo-controlled study evaluated the dose-related effects of inhaled salvinorin A in individuals with histories of hallucinogen use. METHODS Eight healthy hallucinogen-using adults inhaled up to 16 doses of salvinorin A (0.375-21 μg/kg) in ascending order. Physiological, behavioral, and subjective effects were assessed every 2 min for 60 min after administration. Qualitative subjective effects were assessed retrospectively via questionnaires at the end of sessions. Persisting effects were assessed 1 month later. RESULTS Orderly dose-related effects peaked at 2 min and then rapidly dissipated, replicating previous findings. Subjective effects were intense, with maximal drug strength ratings or unresponsiveness frequently observed at high doses. Questionnaires assessing qualitative effects (Hallucinogen Rating Scale, Pharmacological Class Questionnaire) suggested some overlap with serotonergically mediated classic hallucinogens. Salvinorin A also produced dose-related dissociative effects and impairments in recall/recognition memory. At 1-month follow-up, there was no evidence of persisting adverse effects. Participants reported that salvinorin A effects were qualitatively different from other drugs. CONCLUSIONS Salvinorin A produces a unique profile of subjective and cognitive effects, including strong dissociative effects and memory impairment, which only partially overlap with classic hallucinogen effects. Along with nonhuman studies of salvinorin A, these results are important for understanding the neurobiology of the kappa opioid system and may ultimately have important therapeutic applications.
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80
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Currie CL. Epidemiology of adolescent Salvia divinorum use in Canada. Drug Alcohol Depend 2013; 128:166-70. [PMID: 22967837 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2012.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2012] [Revised: 08/05/2012] [Accepted: 08/06/2012] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Salvia divinorum is a potent, naturally occurring hallucinogen gaining popularity as a recreational drug in North America. To date, detailed epidemiologic information about the use of this substance among adolescents living outside the United States has been limited. This study provides information on the prevalence and correlates of Salvia divinorum use among adolesecents in Canada using a nationally representative sample. METHODS Data were obtained from a representative sample of 42,179 Canadian adolescents aged 12-17 years living across all 10 provinces who completed the Youth Smoking Survey in 2008-09. RESULTS Overall, 3.8% of adolescents reported using Salvia in the past year and 6.2% had used the substance in their lifetime. A conservative estimate suggests 23.2% of youth were repeat users. Salvia use was highest among youth in British Columbia and Quebec. Comparatively, the prevalence of 12-month Salvia use was higher than 12-month cocaine and amphetamine use but lower than 12-month ecstasy, cannabis, and other hallucinogen use. Correlates of Salvia use included older age, male gender, high available spending money, binge drinking, illicit drug use and smoking in fully adjusted models. Findings suggest low self-esteem may be an important correlate specific to the use of this substance among youth. CONCLUSIONS Salvia divinorum use is prevalent among Canadian adolescents. Salvia may be a significant public health issue in Canada given it is readily available, under limited regulation, and little is known about the abuse liability of the substance, interactions with other substances, and potential complications from use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheryl L Currie
- Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Lethbridge, M3083 Markin Hall, Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada T1K 3M4.
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Spetea M, Berzetei-Gurske IP, Guerrieri E, Schmidhammer H. Discovery and pharmacological evaluation of a diphenethylamine derivative (HS665), a highly potent and selective κ opioid receptor agonist. J Med Chem 2012; 55:10302-6. [PMID: 23134120 DOI: 10.1021/jm301258w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Here we report on the design, synthesis, and biological characterization of novel κ opioid (KOP) receptor ligands of diphenethylamines. In opioid receptor binding and functional assays, the N-cyclobutylmethyl substituted derivative 4 (HS665) showed the highest affinity and selectivity for the KOP receptor and KOP agonist potency. Compound 4 inhibited acetic acid induced writhing after subcutaneous administration in mice via KOP receptor-mediated mechanisms, being equipotent as an analgesic to the KOP agonist U50,488.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariana Spetea
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Institute of Pharmacy and Center for Molecular Biosciences Innsbruck, University of Innsbruck, Innrain 80-82, A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria
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Munro TA, Ho DM, Cohen BM. Salvinorin B meth-oxy-methyl ether. Acta Crystallogr Sect E Struct Rep Online 2012; 68:o3225-6. [PMID: 23284529 PMCID: PMC3515309 DOI: 10.1107/s1600536812043449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2012] [Accepted: 10/18/2012] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The title compound [MOM-SalB; systematic name: methyl (2S,4aR,6aR,7R,9S,10aS,10bR)-2-(3-furyl)-9-methoxymethoxy-6a,10b-dimethyl-4,10-dioxo-2,4a,5,6,7,8,9,10a-octahydro-1H-benzo[f]isochromene-7-carboxylate], C23H30O8, is a derivative of the κ-opioid salvinorin A with enhanced potency, selectivity, and duration of action. Superimposition of their crystal structures reveals, surprisingly, that the terminal C and O atoms of the MOM group overlap with the corresponding atoms in salvinorin A, which are separated by an additional bond. This counter-intuitive isosterism is possible because the MOM ether adopts the ‘classic anomeric’ conformation (gauche–gauche), tracing a helix around the planar acetate of salvinorin A. This overlap is not seen in the recently reported structure of the tetrahydropyranyl ether, which is less potent. The classic anomeric conformation is strongly favoured in alkoxymethyl ethers, but not in substituted acetals, which may contribute to their reduced potency. This structure may prove useful in evaluating models of the activated κ-opioid receptor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas A Munro
- McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA, USA ; Harvard Medical School, Department of Psychiatry, Boston, MA, USA
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Rosenbaum CD, Carreiro SP, Babu KM. Here today, gone tomorrow…and back again? A review of herbal marijuana alternatives (K2, Spice), synthetic cathinones (bath salts), kratom, Salvia divinorum, methoxetamine, and piperazines. J Med Toxicol 2012; 8:15-32. [PMID: 22271566 DOI: 10.1007/s13181-011-0202-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 236] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite their widespread Internet availability and use, many of the new drugs of abuse remain unfamiliar to health care providers. The herbal marijuana alternatives, like K2 or Spice, are a group of herbal blends that contain a mixture of plant matter in addition to chemical grade synthetic cannabinoids. The synthetic cathinones, commonly called "bath salts," have resulted in nationwide emergency department visits for severe agitation, sympathomimetic toxicity, and death. Kratom, a plant product derived from Mitragyna speciosa Korth, has opioid-like effects, and has been used for the treatment of chronic pain and amelioration of opioid-withdrawal symptoms. Salvia divinorum is a hallucinogen with unique pharmacology that has therapeutic potential but has been banned in many states due to concerns regarding its psychiatric effects. Methoxetamine has recently become available via the Internet and is marked as "legal ketamine." Moreover, the piperazine derivatives, a class of amphetamine-like compounds that includes BZP and TMFPP, are making a resurgence as "legal Ecstasy." These psychoactives are available via the Internet, frequently legal, and often perceived as safe by the public. Unfortunately, these drugs often have adverse effects, which range from minimal to life-threatening. Health care providers must be familiar with these important new classes of drugs. This paper discusses the background, pharmacology, clinical effects, detection, and management of synthetic cannabinoid, synthetic cathinone, methoxetamine, and piperazine exposures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher D Rosenbaum
- Division of Medical Toxicology, Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Massachusetts, Worcester, MA, USA
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