SRC mediates a switch from microtubule- to actin-based motility of vaccinia virus

Clathrin potentiates vaccinia-induced actin polymerization to facilitate viral spread

During their egress, newly assembled vaccinia virus particles fuse with the plasma membrane and enhance their spread by inducing Arp2/3-dependent actin polymerization. Investigating the events surrounding vaccinia virus fusion, we discovered that vaccinia transiently recruits clathrin in a manner dependent on the clathrin adaptor AP-2. The recruitment of clathrin to vaccinia dramatically enhances the ability of the virus to induce actin-based motility. We demonstrate that clathrin promotes clustering of the virus actin tail nucleator A36 and host N-WASP, which activates actin nucleation through the Arp2/3 complex. Increased clustering enhances N-WASP stability, leading to more efficient actin tail initiation and sustained actin polymerization. Our observations uncover an unexpected role for clathrin during virus spread and have important implications for the regulation of actin polymerization.

Loss of cytoskeletal transport during egress critically attenuates ectromelia virus infection in vivo

Egress of wrapped virus (WV) to the cell periphery following vaccinia virus (VACV) replication is dependent on interactions with the microtubule motor complex kinesin-1 and is mediated by the viral envelope protein A36. Here we report that ectromelia virus (ECTV), a related orthopoxvirus and the causative agent of mousepox, encodes an A36 homologue (ECTV-Mos-142) that is highly conserved despite a large truncation at the C terminus. Deleting the ECTV A36R gene leads to a reduction in the number of extracellular viruses formed and to a reduced plaque size, consistent with a role in microtubule transport. We also observed a complete loss of virus-associated actin comets, another phenotype dependent on A36 expression during VACV infection. ECTV ΔA36R was severely attenuated when used to infect the normally susceptible BALB/c mouse strain. ECTV ΔA36R replication and spread from the draining lymph nodes to the liver and spleen were significantly reduced in BALB/c mice and in Rag-1-deficient mice, which lack T and B lymphocytes. The dramatic reduction in ECTV ΔA36R titers early during the course of infection was not associated with an augmented immune response. Taken together, these findings demonstrate the critical role that subcellular transport pathways play not only in orthopoxvirus infection in an in vitro context but also during orthopoxvirus pathogenesis in a natural host. Furthermore, despite the attenuation of the mutant virus, we found that infection nonetheless induced protective immunity in mice, suggesting that orthopoxvirus vectors with A36 deletions may be considered another safe vaccine alternative.

Mobilization of HIV spread by diaphanous 2 dependent filopodia in infected dendritic cells

Paramount to the success of persistent viral infection is the ability of viruses to navigate hostile environments en route to future targets. In response to such obstacles, many viruses have developed the ability of establishing actin rich-membrane bridges to aid in future infections. Herein through dynamic imaging of HIV infected dendritic cells, we have observed how viral high-jacking of the actin/membrane network facilitates one of the most efficient forms of HIV spread. Within infected DC, viral egress is coupled to viral filopodia formation, with more than 90% of filopodia bearing immature HIV on their tips at extensions of 10 to 20 µm. Live imaging showed HIV filopodia routinely pivoting at their base, and projecting HIV virions at µm.sec⁻¹ along repetitive arc trajectories. HIV filopodial dynamics lead to up to 800 DC to CD4 T cell contacts per hour, with selection of T cells culminating in multiple filopodia tethering and converging to envelope the CD4 T-cell membrane with budding HIV particles. Long viral filopodial formation was dependent on the formin diaphanous 2 (Diaph2), and not a dominant Arp2/3 filopodial pathway often associated with pathogenic actin polymerization. Manipulation of HIV Nef reduced HIV transfer 25-fold by reducing viral filopodia frequency, supporting the potency of DC HIV transfer was dependent on viral filopodia abundance. Thus our observations show HIV corrupts DC to CD4 T cell interactions by physically embedding at the leading edge contacts of long DC filopodial networks.

Dendritic cells represent a unique cell type with respect to HIV, as they are the first point of contact for the virus in the genital mucosa and have the ability to spread virus efficiently in very low numbers to the primary HIV target, CD4 T cells. During the primary immune response, dendritic cells work in small numbers to make numerous and repetitive contacts, in order to filter and communicate with appropriate CD4 T cells. Thus HIV is hypothesized to be hijacking the same DC-CD4 T cell communication. Attempts to observe how HIV would achieve this have largely been limited, as introduction of imaging markers in the virus has often led to significant viral attenuation. Herein by using novel HIV constructs that permit imaging of HIV in infected dendritic cells, we observed newly forming HIV virions on the tips of long finger-like projections known as filopodia. In real-time imaging filopodia pivoted at their base and moved virions along trajectories that led to numerous CD4 T cell contacts. By manipulating filopodial formation we conclude the location of the virus on long filopodial tips allows the virus to corrupt the promiscuous dendritic cell to CD4 T cell contacts for efficient viral spread.

Increased interaction between vaccinia virus proteins A33 and B5 is detrimental to infectious extracellular enveloped virion production

Two mechanisms exist for the incorporation of B5 into extracellular virions, one of which is dependent on A33. In the companion to this paper (W. M. Chan and B. M. Ward, J. Virol. 86:8210-8220, 2012), we show that the lumenal domain of A33 is sufficient for interaction with the coiled-coil domain of B5 and capable of directing B5-green fluorescent protein (GFP) into extracellular virions. Here, we have created a panel of charge-to-alanine mutations in the lumenal domain of A33 to map the B5 interaction site. While none of these mutations abolished the interaction with B5, a subset displayed an increased interaction with both B5 and B5-GFP. Both B5 and B5-GFP recombinant viruses expressing these mutant proteins in place of normal A33 had a small-plaque phenotype. The increased interaction of the mutant proteins was detected during infection, suggesting that normally the interaction is either weak or transient. In addition, the increased A33-B5 interaction was detected on virions produced by recombinant viruses and correlated with reduced target cell binding. Taken together, these results show that both B5 and B5-GFP interact with A33 during infection and that the duration of this interaction needs to be regulated for the production of fully infectious extracellular virions.

The A33-dependent incorporation of B5 into extracellular enveloped vaccinia virions is mediated through an interaction between their lumenal domains

There are two mechanisms for the incorporation of B5 into the envelope of extracellular virions produced by orthopoxviruses, one that requires A33 and one that does not. We have hypothesized that the A33-dependent mechanism requires a direct interaction between A33 and B5. In this study, chimeric constructs of A33 and B5/B5-green fluorescent protein (GFP) were used to show that the two proteins interact through their lumenal domains and that the coiled-coil domain of B5 is sufficient for an interaction with A33. Furthermore, our experiments reveal that a transmembrane domain, not necessarily its own, is requisite for the lumenal domain of B5 to interact with A33. In contrast, the lumenal domain of A33 is sufficient for interaction with B5. Furthermore, the lumenal domain of A33 is sufficient to restore the proper localization of B5-GFP in infected cells. Taken together, our results demonstrate that the lumenal domains of A33 and B5 interact and that the interaction is required for the incorporation of B5-GFP into extracellular virions, whereas the incorporation of A33 is independent of B5. These results suggest that viral protein incorporation into extracellular virions is an active process requiring specific protein-protein interactions.

Protein B5 is required on extracellular enveloped vaccinia virus for repulsion of superinfecting virions

Vaccinia virus (VACV) spreads across cell monolayers fourfold faster than predicted from its replication kinetics. Early after infection, infected cells repulse some superinfecting extracellular enveloped virus (EEV) particles by the formation of actin tails from the cell surface, thereby causing accelerated spread to uninfected cells. This strategy requires the expression of two viral proteins, A33 and A36, on the surface of infected cells and upon contact with EEV this complex induces actin polymerization. Here we have studied this phenomenon further and investigated whether A33 and A36 expression in cell lines causes an increase in VACV plaque size, whether these proteins are able to block superinfection by EEV, and which protein(s) on the EEV surface are required to initiate the formation of actin tails from infected cells. Data presented show that VACV plaque size was not increased by expression of A33 and A36, and these proteins did not block entry of the majority of EEV binding to these cells. In contrast, expression of proteins A56 and K2 inhibited entry of both EEV and intracellular mature virus. Lastly, VACV protein B5 was required on EEV to induce the formation of actin tails at the surface of cells expressing A33 and A36, and B5 short consensus repeat 4 is critical for this induction.

Orthopoxvirus targets for the development of new antiviral agents

Investments in the development of new drugs for orthopoxvirus infections have fostered new avenues of research, provided an improved understanding of orthopoxvirus biology and yielded new therapies that are currently progressing through clinical trials. These broad-based efforts have also resulted in the identification of new inhibitors of orthopoxvirus replication that target many different stages of viral replication cycle. This review will discuss progress in the development of new anti-poxvirus drugs and the identification of new molecular targets that can be exploited for the development of new inhibitors. The prototype of the orthopoxvirus group is vaccinia virus and its replication cycle will be discussed in detail noting specific viral functions and their associated gene products that have the potential to serve as new targets for drug development. Progress that has been achieved in recent years should yield new drugs for the treatment of these infections and might also reveal new approaches for antiviral drug development with other viruses.

Modulation of the myxoma virus plaque phenotype by vaccinia virus protein F11

Vaccinia virus (VACV) produces large plaques consisting of a rapidly expanding ring of infected cells surrounding a lytic core, whereas myxoma virus (MYXV) produces small plaques that resemble a focus of transformed cells. This is odd, because bioinformatics suggests that MYXV carries homologs of nearly all of the genes regulating Orthopoxvirus attachment, entry, and exit. So why does MYXV produce foci? One notable difference is that MYXV-infected cells produce few of the actin microfilaments that promote VACV exit and spread. This suggested that although MYXV carries homologs of the required genes (A33R, A34R, A36R, and B5R), they are dysfunctional. To test this, we produced MYXV recombinants expressing these genes, but we could not enhance actin projectile formation even in cells expressing all four VACV proteins. Another notable difference between these viruses is that MYXV lacks a homolog of the F11L gene. F11 inhibits the RhoA-mDia signaling that maintains the integrity of the cortical actin layer. We constructed an MYXV strain encoding F11L and observed that, unlike wild-type MYXV, the recombinant virus disrupted actin stress fibers and produced plaques up to 4-fold larger than those of controls, and these plaques expanded ∼6-fold faster. These viruses also grew to higher titers in multistep growth conditions, produced higher levels of actin projectiles, and promoted infected cell movement, although neither process was to the extent of that observed in VACV-infected cells. Thus, one reason for why MYXV produces small plaques is that it cannot spread via actin filaments, although the reason for this deficiency remains obscure. A second reason is that leporipoxviruses lack vaccinia's capacity to disrupt cortical actin.

Mouse norovirus 1 utilizes the cytoskeleton network to establish localization of the replication complex proximal to the microtubule organizing center

Human noroviruses (family Caliciviridae) are the leading cause of nonbacterial gastroenteritis worldwide. Although Human noroviruses are significant enteric pathogens, there exists no reliable vaccine or therapy to treat infected individuals. To date, attempts to cultivate Human noroviruses within the laboratory have met with little success; however, the related murine norovirus mouse norovirus 1 (MNV-1) has provided an ideal model system to study norovirus replication due to the ease with which the virus is cultivated and the ability to infect a small animal model with this virus. Previously we have identified the association between MNV-1 and components of the host secretory pathway and proposed a role for the viral open reading frame 1 proteins in the replication cycle. Here we describe for the first time a role for cytoskeletal components in early MNV-1 replication events. We show that the MNV-1 utilizes microtubules to position the replication complex adjacent to the microtubule organizing center. Chemical disruption of the microtubule network disperses the sites of MNV-1 replication throughout the cell and impairs production of viral protein and infectious virus. Furthermore, we demonstrate the ability of MNV-1 to redistribute acetylated tubulin to the replication complex and that this association is potentially mediated via the MNV-1 major structural protein, VP1. Transient expression of MNV-1 VP1 exhibited extensive colocalization with both α-tubulin and acetylated tubulin and was observed to alter the distribution of acetylated tubulin in transfected cells. This study highlights the role of the cytoskeleton in early virus replication events and demonstrates the importance of this interaction in establishing the intracellular location of MNV-1 replication complexes.

An overview of the vaccinia virus infectome: a survey of the proteins of the poxvirus-infected cell

We have quantitatively profiled the proteins of vaccinia virus-infected HEK293T cells early and late during vaccinia virus infection. Proteins corresponding to 4,326 accessions were identified, the products of 3,798 genes. One hundred thirty-six of the proteins were vaccinia virus-encoded (∼64% of the known vaccinia virus proteome). The remaining accessions were from the host cell. A total of 3,403 of the 4,326 accessions could be confidently quantitated at the precursor peptide level. Although vaccinia virus gene products spanned the entire abundance dynamic range of the cellular proteome, nearly all of the proteome dynamics observed as a result of infection were manifest in the virus gene products with very little plasticity in the host cell proteome. The vaccinia virus gene products could be grouped into four kinetic classes (i.e., four combinations of pre- and postreplicative expression). These protein kinetic classes reflected, almost entirely, the corresponding gene classes within the recently characterized vaccinia virus transcriptome map. The few cellular gene products that showed notable changes in abundance upon vaccinia virus infection were concentrated largely in just a few functional groups. After all of the quantitated cellular gene products were assigned to Gene Ontology (GO)-specific groups, quantitation values for a number of these GO-specific groups were significantly skewed toward over- or underabundance with respect to the global distribution of quantitation values. Quantitative analysis of host cell functions reflected several known facets of virus infection, along with some novel observations.

A kinesin-1 binding motif in vaccinia virus that is widespread throughout the human genome

Transport of cargoes by kinesin-1 is essential for many cellular processes. Nevertheless, the number of proteins known to recruit kinesin-1 via its cargo binding light chain (KLC) is still quite small. We also know relatively little about the molecular features that define kinesin-1 binding. We now show that a bipartite tryptophan-based kinesin-1 binding motif, originally identified in Calsyntenin is present in A36, a vaccinia integral membrane protein. This bipartite motif in A36 is required for kinesin-1-dependent transport of the virus to the cell periphery. Bioinformatic analysis reveals that related bipartite tryptophan-based motifs are present in over 450 human proteins. Using vaccinia as a surrogate cargo, we show that regions of proteins containing this motif can function to recruit KLC and promote virus transport in the absence of A36. These proteins interact with the kinesin light chain outside the context of infection and have distinct preferences for KLC1 and KLC2. Our observations demonstrate that KLC binding can be conferred by a common set of features that are found in a wide range of proteins associated with diverse cellular functions and human diseases.

Mutagenesis of the palmitoylation site in vaccinia virus envelope glycoprotein B5

The outer envelope of vaccinia virus extracellular virions is derived from intracellular membranes that, at late times in infection, are enriched in several virus-encoded proteins. Although palmitoylation is common in vaccinia virus envelope proteins, little is known about the role of palmitoylation in the biogenesis of the enveloped virus. We have studied the palmitoylation of B5, a 42 kDa type I transmembrane glycoprotein comprising a large ectodomain and a short (17 aa) cytoplasmic tail. Mutation of two cysteine residues located in the cytoplasmic tail in close proximity to the transmembrane domain abrogated palmitoylation of the protein. Virus mutants expressing non-palmitoylated versions of B5 and/or lacking most of the cytoplasmic tail were isolated and characterized. Cell-to-cell virus transmission and extracellular virus formation were only slightly affected by those mutations. Notably, B5 versions lacking palmitate showed decreased interactions with proteins A33 and F13, but were still incorporated into the virus envelope. Expression of mutated B5 by transfection into uninfected cells showed that both the cytoplasmic tail and palmitate have a role in the intracellular transport of B5. These results indicate that the C-terminal portion of protein B5, while involved in protein transport and in protein-protein interactions, is broadly dispensable for the formation and egress of infectious extracellular virus and for virus transmission.

Casein kinase 2 regulates vaccinia virus actin tail formation

Casein kinase 2 (CK2) is a pleiotropic serine/threonine kinase that regulates numerous cellular processes and is essential to the infectious cycle of several viruses. Here we investigated the potential role of CK2 in vaccinia virus (VACV) infection. We used the CK2 inhibitor TBB and found that CK2 inactivation impaired VACV dissemination and actin tail formation. We used RNAi and confirmed that CK2 depletion impaired VACV actin tail formation. Furthermore, we designed a recombinant virus that allowed us to specifically detect cell-associated enveloped viruses (CEVs) at the plasma membrane and demonstrated that CK2 inactivation does not affect CEV formation. Finally, we showed that CK2 depletion impaired the recruitment of Src to CEVs. We discuss the possibility that CK2 may stimulate the A36-dependent recruitment of Src through A36 phosphorylation.

Phosphorylation events during viral infections provide potential therapeutic targets

For many medically relevant viruses, there is now considerable evidence that both viral and cellular kinases play important roles in viral infection. Ultimately, these kinases, and the cellular signaling pathways that they exploit, may serve as therapeutic targets for treating patients. Currently, small molecule inhibitors of kinases are under investigation as therapy for herpes viral infections. Additionally, a number of cellular or host-directed tyrosine kinase inhibitors that have been previously FDA approved for cancer treatment are under study in animal models and clinical trials, as they have shown promise for the treatment of various viral infections as well. This review will highlight the wide range of viral proteins phosphorylated by viral and cellular kinases, and the potential for variability of kinase recognition sites within viral substrates to impact phosphorylation and kinase prediction. Research studying kinase-targeting prophylactic and therapeutic treatments for a number of viral infections will also be discussed.

The salivary secretome of the tsetse fly Glossina pallidipes (Diptera: Glossinidae) infected by salivary gland hypertrophy virus

BACKGROUND

The competence of the tsetse fly Glossina pallidipes (Diptera; Glossinidae) to acquire salivary gland hypertrophy virus (SGHV), to support virus replication and successfully transmit the virus depends on complex interactions between Glossina and SGHV macromolecules. Critical requisites to SGHV transmission are its replication and secretion of mature virions into the fly's salivary gland (SG) lumen. However, secretion of host proteins is of equal importance for successful transmission and requires cataloging of G. pallidipes secretome proteins from hypertrophied and non-hypertrophied SGs.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

After electrophoretic profiling and in-gel trypsin digestion, saliva proteins were analyzed by nano-LC-MS/MS. MaxQuant/Andromeda search of the MS data against the non-redundant (nr) GenBank database and a G. morsitans morsitans SG EST database, yielded a total of 521 hits, 31 of which were SGHV-encoded. On a false discovery rate limit of 1% and detection threshold of least 2 unique peptides per protein, the analysis resulted in 292 Glossina and 25 SGHV MS-supported proteins. When annotated by the Blast2GO suite, at least one gene ontology (GO) term could be assigned to 89.9% (285/317) of the detected proteins. Five (∼1.8%) Glossina and three (∼12%) SGHV proteins remained without a predicted function after blast searches against the nr database. Sixty-five of the 292 detected Glossina proteins contained an N-terminal signal/secretion peptide sequence. Eight of the SGHV proteins were predicted to be non-structural (NS), and fourteen are known structural (VP) proteins.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

SGHV alters the protein expression pattern in Glossina. The G. pallidipes SG secretome encompasses a spectrum of proteins that may be required during the SGHV infection cycle. These detected proteins have putative interactions with at least 21 of the 25 SGHV-encoded proteins. Our findings opens venues for developing novel SGHV mitigation strategies to block SGHV infections in tsetse production facilities such as using SGHV-specific antibodies and phage display-selected gut epithelia-binding peptides.

Single-virus tracking in live cells

Real-time, live-cell imaging techniques and single-particle tracking algorithms can be used to follow individual virus particles as they infect cells. This article describes the labeling of viruses and cellular structures with fluorescent probes to allow visualization in live cells. It also discusses how virus trajectories and virus-cell interactions can be imaged and analyzed. Methods used for time-lapse imaging are outlined, as are inhibitors and reagents used to study the role of the cellular machinery during viral infection. Algorithms for tracking virus particles and obtaining quantitative measurements of viral transport and virus-cell interactions are also included.

Coupling viruses to dynein and kinesin-1

It is now clear that transport on microtubules by dynein and kinesin family motors has an important if not critical role in the replication and spread of many different viruses. Understanding how viruses hijack dynein and kinesin motors using a limited repertoire of proteins offers a great opportunity to determine the molecular basis of motor recruitment. In this review, we discuss the interactions of dynein and kinesin-1 with adenovirus, the α herpes viruses: herpes simplex virus (HSV1) and pseudorabies virus (PrV), human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) and vaccinia virus. We highlight where the molecular links to these opposite polarity motors have been defined and discuss the difficulties associated with identifying viral binding partners where the basis of motor recruitment remains to be established. Ultimately, studying microtubule-based motility of viruses promises to answer fundamental questions as to how the activity and recruitment of the dynein and kinesin-1 motors are coordinated and regulated during bi-directional transport.

Systematic approaches towards the development of host-directed antiviral therapeutics

Since the onset of antiviral therapy, viral resistance has compromised the clinical value of small-molecule drugs targeting pathogen components. As intracellular parasites, viruses complete their life cycle by hijacking a multitude of host-factors. Aiming at the latter rather than the pathogen directly, host-directed antiviral therapy has emerged as a concept to counteract evolution of viral resistance and develop broad-spectrum drug classes. This approach is propelled by bioinformatics analysis of genome-wide screens that greatly enhance insights into the complex network of host-pathogen interactions and generate a shortlist of potential gene targets from a multitude of candidates, thus setting the stage for a new era of rational identification of drug targets for host-directed antiviral therapies. With particular emphasis on human immunodeficiency virus and influenza virus, two major human pathogens, we review screens employed to elucidate host-pathogen interactions and discuss the state of database ontology approaches applicable to defining a therapeutic endpoint. The value of this strategy for drug discovery is evaluated, and perspectives for bioinformatics-driven hit identification are outlined.

The host phosphoinositide 5-phosphatase SHIP2 regulates dissemination of vaccinia virus

After fusing with the plasma membrane, enveloped poxvirus virions form actin-filled membranous protrusions, called tails, beneath themselves and move toward adjacent uninfected cells. While much is known about the host and viral proteins that mediate formation of actin tails, much less is known about the factors controlling release. We found that the phosphoinositide 5-phosphatase SHIP2 localizes to actin tails. Localization requires phosphotyrosine, Abl and Src family tyrosine kinases, and neural Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein (N-WASP) but not the Arp2/Arp3 complex or actin. Cells lacking SHIP2 have normal actin tails but release more virus. Moreover, cells infected with viral strains with mutations in the release inhibitor A34 release more virus but recruit less SHIP2 to tails. Thus, the inhibitory effects of A34 on virus release are mediated by SHIP2. Together, these data suggest that SHIP2 and A34 may act as gatekeepers to regulate dissemination of poxviruses when environmental conditions are conducive.

Proteomic analysis of zebrafish (Danio rerio) infected with infectious spleen and kidney necrosis virus

Iridovirus infections remain a severe problem in aquaculture industries worldwide. Infectious spleen and kidney necrosis virus (ISKNV), the type species of the genus Megalocytovirus in the family Iridoviridae, has caused significant economic losses among freshwater fish in different Asian countries. To investigate the molecular mechanism of iridoviral pathogenesis, we analyzed the differential proteome from the spleen of ISKNV-infected zebrafish through two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2-DE). Mass spectrometry revealed 35 altered cellular protein spots, including 15 upregulated proteins and 20 downregulated proteins at five days post-infection. The altered host proteins were classified into 13 categories based on their biological processes: cytoskeletal protein, stress response, lipoprotein metabolism, ubiquitin-proteasome pathway, carbohydrate metabolism, signal transduction, proteolysis, ion binding, transport, metabolic process, catabolic process, biosynthesis, and oxidation reduction. Moreover, 14 corresponding genes of the differentially expressed proteins were validated by RT-PCR. Western blot analysis further demonstrated the changes in α-tubulin, β-actin, HSC70, and major capsid protein (MCP) during infection. β-Actin was selected for further study via co-immunoprecipitation analyses, which confirmed that the cellular β-actin interacts with the MCP protein of ISKNV in the infected zebrafish. These findings provide insight into the interactions between iridoviruses (especially ISKNV) and host, as well as the mechanism and pathogenesis of ISKNV infections.

Diverse requirements for SRC-family tyrosine kinases distinguish chlamydial species

Chlamydiae are well known for their species specificity and tissue tropism, and yet the individual species and strains show remarkable genomic synteny and share an intracellular developmental cycle unique in the microbial world. Only a relatively few chlamydial genes have been linked to specific disease or tissue tropism. Here we show that chlamydial species associated with human infections, Chlamydia trachomatis and C. pneumoniae, exhibit unique requirements for Src-family kinases throughout their developmental cycle. Utilization of Src-family kinases by C. trachomatis includes tyrosine phosphorylation of the secreted effector Tarp during the entry process, a functional role in microtubule-dependent trafficking to the microtubule organizing center, and a requirement for Src-family kinases for successful initiation of development. Nonhuman chlamydial species C. caviae and C. muridarum show none of these requirements and, instead, appear to be growth restricted by the activities of Src-family kinases. Depletion of Src-family kinases triggers a more rapid development of C. caviae with up to an 800% increase in infectious progeny production. Collectively, the results suggest that human chlamydial species have evolved requirements for tyrosine phosphorylation by Src-family kinases that are not seen in other chlamydial species. The requirement for Src-family kinases thus represents a fundamental distinction between chlamydial species that would not be readily apparent in genomic comparisons and may provide insights into chlamydial disease association and species specificity.

IMPORTANCE

Chlamydiae are well known for their species specificity and tissue tropism as well as their association with unique diseases. A paradox in the field relates to the remarkable genomic synteny shown among chlamydiae and the very few chlamydial genes linked to specific diseases. We have found that different chlamydial species exhibit unique requirements for Src-family kinases. These differing requirements for Src-family kinases would not be apparent in genomic comparisons and appear to be a previously unrecognized distinction that may provide insights to guide research in chlamydial pathogenesis.

MicroRNA regulation of glycoprotein B5R in oncolytic vaccinia virus reduces viral pathogenicity without impairing its antitumor efficacy

Vaccinia virus, once widely used for smallpox vaccine, has recently been engineered and used as an oncolytic virus for cancer virotherapy. Their replication has been restricted to tumors by disrupting viral genes and complementing them with products that are found specifically in tumor cells. Here, we show that microRNA (miRNA) regulation also enables tumor-specific viral replication by altering the expression of a targeted viral gene. Since the deletion of viral glycoprotein B5R not only decreases viral pathogenicity but also impairs the oncolytic activity of vaccinia virus, we used miRNA-based gene regulation to suppress B5R expression through let-7a, a miRNA that is downregulated in many tumors. The expression of B5R and the replication of miRNA-regulated vaccinia virus (MRVV) with target sequences complementary to let-7a in the 3'-untranslated region (UTR) of the B5R gene depended on the endogenous expression level of let-7a in the infected cells. Intratumoral administration of MRVV in mice with human cancer xenografts that expressed low levels of let-7a resulted in tumor-specific viral replication and significant tumor regression without side effects, which were observed in the control virus. These results demonstrate that miRNA-based gene regulation is a potentially novel and versatile platform for engineering vaccinia viruses for cancer virotherapy.

Abl family of tyrosine kinases and microbial pathogenesis

Abl nonreceptor tyrosine kinases are activated by multiple stimuli and regulate cytoskeletal reorganization, cell proliferation, survival, and stress responses. Several downstream pathways have direct impact on physiological processes, including development and maintenance of the nervous and immune systems and epithelial morphogenesis. Recent studies also indicated that numerous viral and bacterial pathogens highjack Abl signaling for different purposes. Abl kinases are activated to reorganize the host actin cytoskeleton and promote the direct tyrosine phosphorylation of viral surface proteins and injected bacterial type-III and type-IV effector molecules. However, Abl kinases also play other roles in infectious processes of bacteria, viruses, and prions. These activities have crucial impact on microbial invasion and release from host cells, actin-based motility, pedestal formation, as well as cell-cell dissociation involved in epithelial barrier disruption and other responses. Thus, Abl kinases exhibit important functions in pathological signaling during microbial infections. Here, we discuss the different signaling pathways activated by pathogens and highlight possible therapeutic intervention strategies.

A bacteriophage-related chimeric marine virus infecting abalone

Marine viruses shape microbial communities with the most genetic diversity in the sea by multiple genetic exchanges and infect multiple marine organisms. Here we provide proof from experimental infection that abalone shriveling syndrome-associated virus (AbSV) can cause abalone shriveling syndrome. This malady produces histological necrosis and abnormally modified macromolecules (hemocyanin and ferritin). The AbSV genome is a 34.952-kilobase circular double-stranded DNA, containing putative genes with similarity to bacteriophages, eukaryotic viruses, bacteria and endosymbionts. Of the 28 predicted open reading frames (ORFs), eight ORF-encoded proteins have identifiable functional homologues. The 4 ORF products correspond to a predicted terminase large subunit and an endonuclease in bacteriophage, and both an integrase and an exonuclease from bacteria. The other four proteins are homologous to an endosymbiont-derived helicase, primase, single-stranded binding (SSB) protein, and thymidylate kinase, individually. Additionally, AbSV exhibits a common gene arrangement similar to the majority of bacteriophages. Unique to AbSV, the viral genome also contains genes associated with bacterial outer membrane proteins and may lack the structural protein-encoding ORFs. Genomic characterization of AbSV indicates that it may represent a transitional form of microbial evolution from viruses to bacteria.

Vaccinia protein F12 has structural similarity to kinesin light chain and contains a motor binding motif required for virion export

Vaccinia virus (VACV) uses microtubules for export of virions to the cell surface and this process requires the viral protein F12. Here we show that F12 has structural similarity to kinesin light chain (KLC), a subunit of the kinesin-1 motor that binds cargo. F12 and KLC share similar size, pI, hydropathy and cargo-binding tetratricopeptide repeats (TPRs). Moreover, molecular modeling of F12 TPRs upon the crystal structure of KLC2 TPRs showed a striking conservation of structure. We also identified multiple TPRs in VACV proteins E2 and A36. Data presented demonstrate that F12 is critical for recruitment of kinesin-1 to virions and that a conserved tryptophan and aspartic acid (WD) motif, which is conserved in the kinesin-1-binding sequence (KBS) of the neuronal protein calsyntenin/alcadein and several other cellular kinesin-1 binding proteins, is essential for kinesin-1 recruitment and virion transport. In contrast, mutation of WD motifs in protein A36 revealed they were not required for kinesin-1 recruitment or IEV transport. This report of a viral KLC-like protein containing a KBS that is conserved in several cellular proteins advances our understanding of how VACV recruits the kinesin motor to virions, and exemplifies how viruses use molecular mimicry of cellular components to their advantage.

Poxvirus proteomics and virus-host protein interactions

Studies of the functional proteins encoded by the poxvirus genome provide information about the composition of the virus as well as individual virus-virus protein and virus-host protein interactions, which provides insight into viral pathogenesis and drug discovery. Widely used proteomic techniques to identify and characterize specific protein-protein interactions include yeast two-hybrid studies and coimmunoprecipitations. Recently, various mass spectrometry techniques have been employed to identify viral protein components of larger complexes. These methods, combined with structural studies, can provide new information about the putative functions of viral proteins as well as insights into virus-host interaction dynamics. For viral proteins of unknown function, identification of either viral or host binding partners provides clues about their putative function. In this review, we discuss poxvirus proteomics, including the use of proteomic methodologies to identify viral components and virus-host protein interactions. High-throughput global protein expression studies using protein chip technology as well as new methods for validating putative protein-protein interactions are also discussed.

F11-mediated inhibition of RhoA signalling enhances the spread of vaccinia virus in vitro and in vivo in an intranasal mouse model of infection

The cortical actin cytoskeleton beneath the plasma membrane represents a physical barrier that vaccinia virus has to overcome during its exit from an infected cell. Previous observations using overexpression and pharmacological approaches suggest that vaccinia enhances its release by modulating the cortical actin cytoskeleton by inhibiting RhoA signalling using the viral protein F11. We have now examined the role of F11 and its ability to interact with RhoA to inhibit its downstream signalling in the spread of vaccinia infection both in vitro and in vivo. Live cell imaging over 48 hours reveals that loss of F11 or its ability to bind RhoA dramatically reduces the rate of cell-to-cell spread of the virus in a cell monolayer. Cells infected with the DeltaF11L virus also maintained their cell-to-cell contacts, and did not undergo virus-induced motility as observed during wild-type infections. The DeltaF11L virus is also attenuated in intranasal mouse models of infection, as it is impaired in its ability to spread from the initial sites of infection to the lungs and spleen. Loss of the ability of F11 to bind RhoA also reduces viral spread in vivo. Our results clearly establish that viral-mediated inhibition of RhoA signalling can enhance the spread of infection not only in cell monolayers, but also in vivo.

Requirement for formin-induced actin polymerization during spread of Shigella flexneri

Actin polymerization in the cytosol and at the plasma membrane is locally regulated by actin nucleators. Several microbial pathogens exploit cellular actin polymerization to spread through tissue. The movement of the enteric pathogen Shigella flexneri, both within the cell body and from cell to cell, depends on actin polymerization. During intercellular spread, actin polymerization at the bacterial surface generates protrusions of the plasma membrane, which are engulfed by adjacent cells. In the cell body, polymerization of actin by Shigella spp. is dependent on N-WASP activation of the Arp2/Arp3 complex. Here we demonstrate that, in contrast, efficient protrusion formation and intercellular spread depend on actin polymerization that involves activation of the Diaphanous formin Dia. While the Shigella virulence protein IpgB2 can bind and activate Dia1 (N. M. Alto et al., Cell 124:133-145, 2006), its absence does not result in a detectable defect in Dia-dependent protrusion formation or spread. The dependence on the activation of Dia during S. flexneri infection contrasts with the inhibition of this pathway observed during vaccinia virus infection.

Molecular smallpox vaccine delivered by alphavirus replicons elicits protective immunity in mice and non-human primates

Naturally occurring smallpox was eradicated as a result of successful vaccination campaigns during the 1960s and 1970s. Because of its highly contagious nature and high mortality rate, smallpox has significant potential as a biological weapon. Unfortunately, the current vaccine for orthopoxviruses is contraindicated for large portions of the population. Thus, there is a need for new, safe, and effective orthopoxvirus vaccines. Alphavirus replicon vectors, derived from strains of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus, are being used to develop alternatives to the current smallpox vaccine. Here, we demonstrated that virus-like replicon particles (VRPs) expressing the vaccinia virus A33R, B5R, A27L, and L1R genes elicited protective immunity in mice comparable to vaccination with live-vaccinia virus. Furthermore, cynomolgus macaques vaccinated with a combination of the four poxvirus VRPs (4pox-VRP) developed antibody responses to each antigen. These antibody responses were able to neutralize and inhibit the spread of both vaccinia virus and monkeypox virus. Macaques vaccinated with 4pox-VRP, flu HA VRP (negative control), or live-vaccinia virus (positive control) were challenged intravenously with 5 x 10(6)pfu of monkeypox virus 1 month after the second VRP vaccination. Four of the six negative control animals succumbed to monkeypox and the remaining two animals demonstrated either severe or grave disease. Importantly, all 10 macaques vaccinated with the 4pox-VRP vaccine survived without developing severe disease. These findings revealed that a single-boost VRP smallpox vaccine shows promise as a safe alternative to the currently licensed live-vaccinia virus smallpox vaccine.

The rate of N-WASP exchange limits the extent of ARP2/3-complex-dependent actin-based motility

Understanding cell motility will require detailed knowledge not only of the localization of signalling networks regulating actin polymerization, but also of their dynamics. Unfortunately, many signalling networks are not amenable to such analysis, as they are frequently transient and dispersed. By contrast, the signalling pathways used by pathogens undergoing actin-based motility are highly localized and operate in a constitutive fashion. Taking advantage of this, we have analysed the dynamics of neuronal Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein (N-WASP), WASP-interacting protein (WIP), GRB2 and NCK, which are required to stimulate actin-related protein (ARP)2/3-complex-dependent actin-based motility of vaccinia virus, using fluorescence recovery after photobleaching. Here we show that all four proteins are rapidly exchanging, albeit at different rates, and that the turnover of N-WASP depends on its ability to stimulate ARP2/3-complex-mediated actin polymerization. Conversely, disruption of the interaction of N-WASP with GRB2 and/or the barbed ends of actin filaments increases its exchange rate and results in a faster rate of virus movement. We suggest that the exchange rate of N-WASP controls the rate of ARP2/3-complex-dependent actin-based motility by regulating the extent of actin polymerization by antagonizing filament capping.

Aligning antimicrobial drug discovery with complex and redundant host-pathogen interactions

Drug-resistant microorganisms pose an enormous threat to public health. Here we provide examples of experimental approaches that offer novel ways to think about drug development considering the complexity inherent to host-pathogen interactions. Emergent themes include (1) targeting pathogenicity rather than microbial growth, (2) targeting the host or host-pathogen interface rather than the pathogen, (3) facilitating pathogen-specific immune responses, and (4) utilizing systems-based approaches to identify new drug targets and validate drug efficacy. We posit that together these approaches may allow identification of drugs that disrupt pathogenesis and allow the immune system time to protect, but do not easily engender resistance.

An E2-F12 complex is required for intracellular enveloped virus morphogenesis during vaccinia infection

The vaccinia virus protein, F12, has been suggested to play an important role in microtubule-based transport of intracellular enveloped virus (IEV). We found that GFP-F12 is recruited to IEV moving on microtubules but is released from virus particles when they switch to actin-based motility. In the absence of F12, although the majority of IEV remain close to their peri-nuclear site of assembly, a small number of IEV still move with linear trajectories at speeds of 0.85 μm s⁻¹, consistent with microtubule transport. Using a recombinant virus expressing GST-F12, we found that the viral protein E2 interacts directly with F12. In infected cells, GFP-E2 is observed on moving IEV as well as in the Golgi region, but is not associated with actin tails. In the absence of E2L, IEV accumulate in the peri-nuclear region and F12 is not recruited. Conversely, GFP-E2 is not observed on IEV in the absence of F12. Ultra-structural analysis of ΔE2L- and ΔF12L-infected cells reveals that loss of either protein results in defects in membrane wrapping during IEV formation. We suggest that E2 and F12 function as a complex that is necessary for IEV morphogenesis prior to their microtubule-based transport towards the plasma membrane.

Microtubule-dependent and microtubule-independent steps in Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus replication cycle

Following binding and entry many viruses exploit the host cell cytoskeleton to ensure intracellular transport, assembly or egress. For Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus (CCHFV), the causative agent of a severe hemorrhagic disease, virus-host interactions are poorly investigated. In this study we demonstrated that drug-induced suppression of microtubule dynamics and especially microtubule disassembly, impaired CCHFV biogenesis. Our results showed that intact microtubules were required early during virus internalization, and late, during virus assembly and egress. Furthermore, disruption of microtubules resulted in reduced levels of viral RNA while preservation of microtubule dynamics was most important during viral egress. Finally, although CCHFV proteins were redistributed in drug-treated cells, the glycoprotein remained associated with the Golgi apparatus, the organelle of virus budding. Taken together, our results suggest that manipulation of microtubules affects CCHFV entry, replication, assembly and egress.

The Src kinase Lck facilitates assembly of HIV-1 at the plasma membrane

HIV type 1 (HIV-1) assembly and egress are driven by the viral protein Gag and occur at the plasma membrane in T cells. Recent evidence indicates that secretory vesicles and machinery are essential components of virus packaging in both T cells and macrophages. However, the pathways and cellular mediators of Gag targeting to the plasma membrane are not well characterized. Lck, a lymphoid specific Src kinase critical for T cell activation, is found in the plasma membrane as well as various intracellular compartments and it has been suggested to influence HIV-1 replication. To investigate Lck as a potential regulator of Gag targeting, we assessed HIV-1 replication and Gag-induced virus-like particle release in the presence and absence of Lck. Release of HIV-1 and virus-like particles was reduced in the absence of Lck. This decrease in replication was not due to altered HIV-1 infection, transcription or protein translation. However, in T cells lacking Lck, HIV-1 accumulated intracellularly. In addition, expressing Lck in HeLa cells promoted HIV-1 Gag plasma membrane localization. Palmitoylation of the Lck unique domain, which is essential for directing Lck to the plasma membrane, was critical for its effect on HIV-1 replication. Furthermore, HIV-1 Gag directly interacted with the Lck unique domain in the context of infected cells. These results indicate that Lck plays a key role in targeting HIV-1 Gag to the plasma membrane in T cells.

Vaccinia virus morphogenesis and dissemination

Vaccinia virus is the smallpox vaccine. It is the most intensively studied poxvirus, and its study has provided important insights about virus replication in general and the interactions of viruses with the host cell and immune system. Here, the entry, morphogenesis and dissemination of vaccinia virus are considered. These processes are complicated by the existence of two infectious vaccinia virus particles, called intracellular mature virus (IMV) and extracellular enveloped virus (EEV). The IMV particle is surrounded by one membrane, and the EEV particle comprises an IMV particle enclosed within a second lipid membrane containing several viral antigens. Consequently, these virions have different biological properties and play different roles in the virus life cycle.

Poxvirus host range genes

As a family of viruses, poxviruses collectively exhibit a broad host range and most of the individual members are capable of replicating in a wide array of cell types from various host species, at least in vitro. At the cellular level, poxvirus tropism is dependent not upon specific cell surface receptors, but rather upon: (1) the ability of the cell to provide intracellular complementing factors needed for productive virus replication, and (2) the ability of the specific virus to successfully manipulate intracellular signaling networks that regulate cellular antiviral processes downstream of virus entry. The large genomic coding capacity of poxviruses enables the virus to express a unique collection of viral proteins that function as host range factors, which specifically target and manipulate host signaling pathways to establish optimal cellular conditions for viral replication. Functionally, the known host range factors from poxviruses have been associated with manipulation of a diverse array of cellular targets, which includes cellular kinases and phosphatases, apoptosis, and various antiviral pathways. To date, only a small number of poxvirus host range genes have been identified and studied, and only a handful of these have been functionally characterized. For this reason, poxvirus host range factors represent a potential gold mine for the discovery of novel pathogen-host protein interactions. This review summarizes our current understanding of the mechanisms by which the known poxvirus host range genes, and their encoded factors, expand tropism through the manipulation of host cell intracellular signaling pathways.

Cytonemes and tunneling nanotubules in cell-cell communication and viral pathogenesis

Cells use a variety of intercellular structures, including gap junctions and synapses, for cell-cell communication. Here, we present recent advances in the understanding of thin membrane bridges that function in cell-cell signaling and intercellular transport. Cytonemes or filopodial bridges connect neighboring cells via mechanisms of adhesion, which enable ligand-receptor-mediated transfer of surface-associated cargoes from cell to cell. By contrast, tunneling nanotubes establish tubular conduits between cells that provide for the exchange of both cell-surface molecules and cytoplasmic content. We propose models for the biogenesis of both types of membrane bridges and describe how viruses use these structures for the purpose of cell-to-cell spread.

Endosomal trafficking of Src tyrosine kinase

Endosomal trafficking is an essential cellular process involved in the transport of proteins such as integrins, hormone receptors, growth factor receptors, receptor tyrosine kinases, and lipids (e.g. sphingomyelin). Regulation of this process is highly complex and involves Arf GAPs, SNAREs, Rab proteins, Rho GTPases and the actin cytoskeleton. In this article, we focus on the intracellular targeting of the Src family of non-receptor tyrosine kinases (nRTKs), and the role of endosomes in the delivery of nRTKs to the plasma membrane. Furthermore, we discuss the role of the actin cytoskeleton in this process and consider how endosome-regulated intracellular trafficking affects cell signalling.

Host-directed drug targeting of factors hijacked by pathogens

The current paradigm for managing infectious diseases has targeted unique processes or enzymes within pathogens. A serious disadvantage of this pathogen-directed drug targeting strategy has been the development of microbial drug resistance and consequent resurgence of once-contained infectious diseases. A new drug discovery paradigm has therefore emerged focusing on identifying and targeting host factors essential for pathogen entry, survival, and replication. Innovative strategies combining genome-wide computational biology, genomics, proteomics, and traditional forward and reverse genetics have identified host-pathogen interactions and host functions critical for the establishment of infection. Chemogenomics and chemical genetics have allowed rapid identification of new and existing licensed drugs with antimicrobial activity. Although most host-directed drug targeting studies have focused on viral infections, they have provided a proof of concept for similar approaches to bacterial and parasite infections. Future therapies may combine conventional targeting of microbial virulence factors, together with host-directed drug therapy and augmentation of protective host factors, to efficiently eliminate the invading pathogen.

A gamma-herpesvirus glycoprotein complex manipulates actin to promote viral spread

Viruses lack self-propulsion. To move in multi-cellular hosts they must therefore manipulate infected cells. Herpesviruses provide an archetype for many aspects of host manipulation, but only for alpha-herpesviruses in is there much information about they move. Other herpesviruses are not necessarily the same. Here we show that Murine gamma-herpesvirus-68 (MHV-68) induces the outgrowth of long, branched plasma membrane fronds to create an intercellular network for virion traffic. The fronds were actin-based and RhoA-dependent. Time-lapse imaging showed that the infected cell surface became highly motile and that virions moved on the fronds. This plasma membrane remodelling was driven by the cytoplasmic tail of gp48, a MHV-68 glycoprotein previously implicated in intercellular viral spread. The MHV-68 ORF58 was also required, but its role was simply transporting gp48 to the plasma membrane, since a gp48 mutant exported without ORF58 did not require ORF58 to form membrane fronds either. Together, gp48/ORF58 were sufficient to induce fronds in transfected cells, as were the homologous BDLF2/BMRF2 of Epstein-Barr virus. Gp48/ORF58 therefore represents a conserved module by which gamma-herpesviruses rearrange cellular actin to increase intercellular contacts and thereby promote their spread.

The release of vaccinia virus from infected cells requires RhoA-mDia modulation of cortical actin

Prior to being released from the infected cell, intracellular enveloped vaccinia virus particles are transported from their perinuclear assembly site to the plasma membrane along microtubules by the motor kinesin-1. After fusion with the plasma membrane, stimulation of actin tails beneath extracellular virus particles acts to enhance cell-to-cell virus spread. However, we lack molecular understanding of events that occur at the cell periphery just before and during the liberation of virus particles. Using live cell imaging, we show that virus particles move in the cell cortex, independently of actin tail formation. These cortical movements and the subsequent release of virus particles, which are both actin dependent, require F11L-mediated inhibition of RhoA-mDia signaling. We suggest that the exit of vaccinia virus from infected cells has strong parallels to exocytosis, as it is dependent on the assembly and organization of actin in the cell cortex.

An active Src kinase-β-actin association is linked to actin dynamics at the periphery of colon cancer cells

Src controls the dynamic actin cytoskeleton in fibroblasts and in cancer cells, although it is not known how direct its effects are. Using FRET/FLIM imaging, we found that wild type Src associates directly, or indirectly, with peripheral beta-actin at integrin adhesions after serum stimulation, and that an active Src kinase domain is essential. Beta-actin can be directly tyrosine-phosphorylated by Src in vitro, and in a Src-dependent manner in cells. Moreover, beta-actin dynamics are suppressed when Src is rendered kinase-inactive. Surprisingly, debilitating mutations in the Src SH2 or SH3 domains do not suppress association of Src with beta-actin. This may therefore be an example of a spatially regulated Src kinase/substrate interaction that is controlling peripheral actin dynamics. Interestingly, there is no FRET between Src and beta-actin at cadherin-mediated cell-cell contacts, despite apparent co-localization there, demonstrating precise spatial specificity of Src/beta-actin complexes.

Microarray assay for evaluation of the genetic stability of modified vaccinia virus Ankara B5R gene

Adverse events associated with the use of live smallpox vaccines have led to the development of a new generation of attenuated smallpox vaccines that are prepared in cultured cells as alternatives. The inability to conduct direct clinical evaluation of their efficacy in humans demands that licensure be based on animal studies and exhaustive evaluation of their in vitro properties. One of the most important characteristics of live viral vaccines is their genetic stability, including reversion of the vaccine strain to more virulent forms, recombination with other viral sequences to produce potentially pathogenic viruses, and genetic drift that can result in decrease of immunogenicity and efficacy. To study genetic stability of an immunoessential vaccinia virus gene in a new generation smallpox vaccine, an advanced oligonucleotide microchip was developed and used to assay for mutations that could emerge in B5R gene, a vaccinia virus gene encoding for a protein that contains very important neutralizing epitopes. This microarray contained overlapping oligonucleotides covering the B5R gene of modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA), a well-studied candidate smallpox vaccine. The microarray assay was shown to be able to detect even a single point mutation, and to differentiate between vaccinia strains. At the same time, it could detect newly emerged mutations in clones of vaccinia strains. In the work described here, it was shown that MVA B5R gene was stable after 34 passages in Vero and MRC-5 cells that were proposed for use as cell substrates for vaccine manufacture. Potentially, the proposed method could be used as an identity test and could be extended for the entire viral genome and used to monitor consistency of vaccine production.

Activation of p61Hck triggers WASp- and Arp2/3-dependent actin-comet tail biogenesis and accelerates lysosomes

Secretory lysosomes exist in few cell types, but various mechanisms are involved to ensure their mobilization within the cytoplasm. In phagocytes, lysosome exocytosis is a regulated phenomenon at least in part under the control of the phagocyte-specific and lysosome-associated Src-kinase p61Hck (hematopoietic cell kinase). We show here that p61Hck activation triggered polymerization of actin at the membrane of lysosomes, which resulted in F-actin structures similar to comet tails observed on endocytic vesicles. We correlated this actin-comet biogenesis to a 35% acceleration of p61Hck-lysosomes in cells, which was dependent on actin polymerization and required an intact microtubular network. It was possible to initiate the formation of actin tails on p61Hck-positive lysosomes and on p61Hck-associated latex beads incubated in human phagocyte cytosolic extracts. The in vitro reconstitution on beads indicated that other lysosomal proteins were dispensable in this mechanism. The de novo actin polymerization process was functionally dependent on the kinase activity of Hck, WASp, the Arp2/3 complex, and Cdc42 but not Rac or Rho. Thus, we identified p61Hck as the first lysosomal protein able to recruit the molecular machinery responsible for actin tail formation. Altogether, our results suggest a new mechanism for lysosome motility involving p61Hck, actin-comet tail biogenesis, and the microtubule network.