51
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Ungerer A, Marchi D, Ropartz P, Weil JH. Aversive effects and retention impairment induced by acetoxycycloheximide in an instrumental task. Physiol Behav 1975; 15:55-62. [PMID: 1197399 DOI: 10.1016/0031-9384(75)90279-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
AXM, when subcutaneously injected during the first 3 min following the acquisition of a nondiscriminative instrumental learning task, induced an aversion for the food reinforcement which had been associated with the training situation and with the pharmacological treatment. The high number of nonreinforced responses preceding the first reinforced response(RR) that animals performed when tested 6 days after AXM treatment, was not due to forgetting of the lever significance, but to this aversion. Animals treated with AXM showed low levels of lever pressing response and long latencies for their first RR; this deficit did not seem only to be due to food reinforcement aversion; it disappeared, as well as food aversion, when food reinforcement which had been associated with the learning situation and to treatment, was added to the daily feeding regimen during treatment-test interval. It has been shown, moreover, that more than 90 percent of cerebral protein synthesis was inhibited during the 5 hr following subcutaneous AXM injection. These findings are interpreted as an indication that AXM does not affect memory consolidation of a non discriminative instrumental learning.
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52
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Flood JF, Bennett EL, Orme AE, Rosenzweig MR. Effects of protein synthesis inhibition on memory for active avoidance training. Physiol Behav 1975; 14:177-84. [PMID: 1161822 DOI: 10.1016/0031-9384(75)90163-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Inhibition of brain protein synthesis by anisomycin and acetoxycycloheximide was studied in mice for its biochemical and behavioral effects. By employing both drugs in low doses in a series of injections, we were able to maintain inhibition of protein synthesis of 80% or greater for up to 14 hr without causing detectable permanent physiological impairment. The drugs were employed as amnestic agents in mice trained to avoid footshock in a T-maze. As the duration of inhibition increased, the percentage of mice classed as amnesic increased. This amnesia could be reduced by increasing (a) the rate of acquisition, or (b) the number of training trials. Anisomycin was shown to cause a significant degree of amnesia for the escape component as well as the avoidance component of the learning. A single injection of anisomycin given 15 min prior to training did not cause significant changes in the acquisition or retention of avoidance conditioning, when comparison was made with saline-injected controls. Only additional injections given after training to prolong inhibition caused amnesia. Thus, those injections critical in obtaining amnesia were given at a time at which interference with acquisition could not have occurred, so the results bear clearly on memory processes.
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53
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Wenzel J, David H, Pohle W, Marx I, Matthies H. Free and membrane-bound ribosomes and polysomes in hippocampal neurons during a learning experiment. Brain Res 1975; 84:99-109. [PMID: 1111828 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(75)90803-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The ribosomes of the CA1 and CA3 pyramidal cells of hipocampus were investigated by morphometric methods after the acquisition of a shock-motivated brightness discrimination in rats. A significant increase in the total number of ribosomes was observed in CA1 cells of trained animals and in CA3 cells of both active controls and trained rats. A significant increase in membrane-bound ribosomes was obtained in CA1 and CA3 cells after training only. The results confirm the suggestion of an increased protein synthesis in hippocampal neurons during and after the acquisition of a brightness discrimination, as we have concluded from out previous investigations on the incorporation of labeled amino acids under identical experimental conditions. The results lead to the assumption that the protein synthesis in some neuronal cells may probably differ not only quantitatively, but also qualitatively in trained and untrained animals.
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54
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Abstract
It has previously been shown that expression of maze-learning in mice is blocked for long periods of time by puromycin injected intracerebrally one or more days after the training experience. Treatment with caffeine after training has now been found to reduce greatly the amnestic effects of puromycin. With a high dose of caffeine (200 mg/kg) this reduction is evident 6 days after treatment with puromycin. With a lower dose of caffeine (25 mg/kg) the effect becomes evident only after a more extended period of time. In view of control experiments, we suggest that caffeine modifies factors necessary for the expression of memory and that this alteration makes puromycin relatively ineffective in blocking memory.
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55
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Gabrielescu E. Structural integration of neuroprotease activity. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 1975; 17:189-239. [PMID: 237847 DOI: 10.1016/s0074-7742(08)60210-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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56
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Ungerer A, Ropartz P, Karli P. [Modifications of bioelectrical activity of the hippocampus of mice induced by acetoxycycloheximide (author's transl)]. Physiol Behav 1974; 13:653-60. [PMID: 4431840 DOI: 10.1016/0031-9384(74)90236-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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57
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Schmaltz G, Delerm B. [Effects of cycloheximide on acquisition and retention of an avoidance learning in the rat: recovery of memory (author's transl)]. Physiol Behav 1974; 13:211-20. [PMID: 4409414 DOI: 10.1016/0031-9384(74)90037-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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58
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Krivoy WA, Zimmermann E, Lande S. Facilitation of development of resistance to morphine analgesia by desglycinamide9-lysine vasopressin. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1974; 71:1852-6. [PMID: 4525467 PMCID: PMC388340 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.71.5.1852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Desglycinamide(9)-lysine vasopressin facilitates development of resistance to the analgesic action of morphine in mice if morphine is administered before the peptide. Desglycinamide(9)-lysine vasopressin is not a morphine antagonist, and does not appear to cause either hyperalgesia or alteration of the response to the technique used for evaluating analgesia.
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59
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Uphouse LL, MacInnes JW, Schlesinger K. Role of RNA and protein in memory storage: a review. Behav Genet 1974; 4:29-81. [PMID: 4593438 DOI: 10.1007/bf01066705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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60
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Conceptual and Neurobiological Issues In Studies of Treatments Affecting Memory Storage. PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING AND MOTIVATION 1974. [DOI: 10.1016/s0079-7421(08)60456-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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61
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Ungerer A. [Nature and amplitude of the effects of acetoxycycloheximide on the retention of an instrumental task in mice (author's transl)]. Physiol Behav 1973; 11:323-7. [PMID: 4745054 DOI: 10.1016/0031-9384(73)90007-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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62
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Thut PD, Hruska RE, Kelter A, Mizne J, Lindell TJ. The effect of alpha-amanitin on passive and active avoidance acquisition in mice. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1973; 30:355-68. [PMID: 4737309 DOI: 10.1007/bf00429195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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63
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Noble EP, Tewari S. Protein and ribonucleic acid metabolism in brains of mice following chronic alcohol consumption. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1973; 215:333-45. [PMID: 4513678 DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1973.tb28287.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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64
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65
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Essman WB. Age dependent effects of 5-hydroxytryptamine upon memory consolidation and cerebral protein synthesis. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1973; 1:7-14. [PMID: 4775586 DOI: 10.1016/0091-3057(73)90048-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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66
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Pituitary-Adrenal System, Learning and Performance: Some Neurochemical Aspects. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 1973. [DOI: 10.1016/s0079-6123(08)64099-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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67
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Hutton RS, Stevens JL, Stevens F. The effect of strenuous and exhaustive exercise on learning. J Mot Behav 1972; 4:207-16. [PMID: 23961702 DOI: 10.1080/00222895.1972.10734936] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
In view of reported effects of strenuous and exhaustive exercise on CNS activity, it was hypothesized that "fatiguing" exercise may influence learning retroactively as predicted by consolidation theory. Prelimary findings from two animal experiments are reported followed by a discussion of implications for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- R S Hutton
- a Department of Physical Education , University of Washington
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68
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Levitan IB, Ramirez G, Mushynski WE. Amino acid incorporation in the brains of rats trained to use the non-preferred paw in retrieving food. Brain Res 1972; 47:147-56. [PMID: 4641264 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(72)90258-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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69
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Andry DK, Luttges MW. Memory traces: experimental separation by cycloheximide and electroconvulsive shock. Science 1972; 178:518-20. [PMID: 4673046 DOI: 10.1126/science.178.4060.518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Mice given cycloheximide or saline were trained with a single trial. Electroconvulsive shock was administered to both groups at various times after training. Cycloheximide led to memory that decayed with time. Cycloheximide plus electroconvulsive shock produced complete amnesia at times when neither treatment alone produced amnesia. Only two types of processes appear to support memory storage in our study.
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70
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71
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Levitan IB, Mushynski WE, Ramirez G. Effects of an enriched environment on amino acid incorporation into rat brain sub-cellular fractions in vivo. Brain Res 1972; 41:498-502. [PMID: 5038344 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(72)90524-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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72
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Lande S, Flexner JB, Flexner LB. Effect of corticotropin and desglycinamide 9 -lysine vasopressin on suppression of memory by puromycin. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1972; 69:558-60. [PMID: 4335065 PMCID: PMC426506 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.69.3.558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
The puromycin-induced blockade of expression of maze learning in mice can be prevented by subcutaneous administration of "Purified Cortrophin Gel" up to 3 days prior to training. A similar protective effect was not found when highly purified corticotropin was tested, but was observed after administration of desglycinamide(9)-lysine vasopressin. It appears that pressorpeptides are more potent protective agents than corticotropin when administered subcutaneously, and that vasopressin contamination of the commercial preparation was probably responsible for the protective effects previously reported. These experiments suggest that vasopressin and its congeners modify memory consolidation in such a way that the "expression" of memory becomes insensitive to puromycin.
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73
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Gambetti P, Hirt L, Stieber A, Shafer B. Distribution of puromycin peptides in mouse entorhinal cortex. Exp Neurol 1972; 34:223-8. [PMID: 5016196 DOI: 10.1016/0014-4886(72)90169-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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74
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Serota RG, Roberts RB, Flexner LB. Acetoxycycloheximide-induced transient amnesia: protective effects of adrenergic stimulants. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1972; 69:340-2. [PMID: 4333977 PMCID: PMC426453 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.69.2.340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
It has previously been shown that rats trained 5 hr after intracerebral injection of acetoxycycloheximide show a transient amnesia at 24 hr after training. We have tested the possibility that adrenergic stimulants might provide protection from the amnesia. Metaraminol, given either before or after training or before testing, prevents the drug-induced amnesia. D-Amphetamine, injected soon after training, also prevents the amnesia. A model is presented to explain the drug-induced amnesia in terms of both the assumed effect of acetoxycycloheximide on the adrenergic system and prevention of the amnesia by metaraminol and D-amphetamine.
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75
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Abstract
The effects of direct brain infusions of acetoxycycloheximide (an inhibitor of protein synthesis; ACXH) on acquisition, storage and recall of memory for one-trial appetitive learning were examined in five experiments. ACXH was infused into the rats' hippocampi through implanted cannulas. Control subjects received an equal volume of physiological saline. ACXH was infused (a) 5 h before acquisition, (b) 5 hr before commencement of recall tests, and (c) immediately after acquisition. Each subject's general motor activity was recording during testing. The results indicate that (1) ACXH has similar effects on appetitive and avoidance learning. (2) ACXH administered immediately after acquisition, has no effect on memory. (3) At 4 hr after acquisition memory is affected by ACXH. (4) Short-term memory is unaffected by ACXH and can exist independently of long-term memory. (5) ACXH consistently reduces general motor activity.
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76
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Miller JG. II: The cell. Biosystems 1972. [DOI: 10.1016/0303-2647(72)90007-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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77
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78
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79
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80
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81
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Flexner JB, Flexner LB. Pituitary peptides and the suppression of memory by puromycin. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1971; 68:2519-21. [PMID: 4332813 PMCID: PMC389459 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.68.10.2519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
It has previously been shown that the expression of memory of maze-learning in mice is blocked by intracerebrally-injected puromycin one or more days after the training experience, and that bilateral adrenalectomy before training protects memory against this effect of puromycin. Purified cortrophin gel, injected subcutaneously up to 3 days before training, has now been found to give results like those obtained with adrenalectomy and, additionally, to provide a high degree of protection when injected up to 16 hr after training. Several possible explanations for these effects have been considered and found to be inadequate.
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82
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83
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Schneider CW, Chenoweth MB. Effects of cycloheximide on unrestricted behavioral patterns of mice. Brain Res 1971; 25:625-31. [PMID: 5544328 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(71)90465-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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84
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Neale JH, Gray I. Protein synthesis and retention of a conditioned response in rainbow trout as affected by temperature reduction. Brain Res 1971. [DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(71)90551-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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85
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Paggi P, Toschi G. Inhibitors of protein synthesis involved in memory disruption. A study of their effects on sympathetic ganglion isolated in vitro. JOURNAL OF NEUROBIOLOGY 1971; 2:119-28. [PMID: 5160269 DOI: 10.1002/neu.480020204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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86
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Flexner LB, Gambetti P, Flexner JB, Roberts RB. Studies on memory: distribution of peptidyl-puromycin in subcellular fractions of mouse brain. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1971; 68:26-8. [PMID: 5276297 PMCID: PMC391094 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.68.1.26] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Previous experience has led us to suggest that sustained blockage of memory in mice upon administration of puromycin is caused by the persistence of peptidyl-puromycin at synapses. The block can be removed and memory restored by intracerebral injections of water and by subcutaneous or intraperitoneal injections of several psychotropic drugs. The present experiments provide evidence that peptidyl-puromycin persists for long periods in subcellular fractions of synaptosomes (nerve endings), and that the peptide is lost from synaptosomal, but not from mitochondrial, fractions when memory is restored. These findings strengthen our interpretation of the mode of action of puromycin on memory.
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87
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Elektronenmikroskopische und histoautoradiographische Befunde zur Puromycinwirkung auf ausreifende Plexus chorioideus-Zellen in vitro. Cell Tissue Res 1971. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00331195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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88
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Matthies H, Fähse C, Lietz W. [Effect of RNA-precursors on the maintenance of long-term memory]. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1971; 20:10-5. [PMID: 5565742 DOI: 10.1007/bf00404053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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89
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Essman WB. Some neurochemical correlates of altered memory consolidation. TRANSACTIONS OF THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 1970; 32:948-73. [PMID: 5279910 DOI: 10.1111/j.2164-0947.1970.tb02989.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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90
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Flexner JB, Flexner LB. Adrenalectomy and the suppression of memory by puromycin. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1970; 66:48-52. [PMID: 4320463 PMCID: PMC286085 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.66.1.48] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
It has previously been shown that expression of memory of maze-learning in mice is blocked by puromycin injected intracerebrally one or more days after the training experience. Bilateral adrenalectomy before training has now been found to protect memory against the effects of puromycin. This protection is absent when adrenalectomy follows training. In view of control experiments, we conclude that adrenalectomy before training modifies factors necessary for the expression of memory and that this alteration makes puromycin ineffective in blocking memory.
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91
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Domagk GF, Zippel HP. [Biochemistry of memory storage]. THE SCIENCE OF NATURE - NATURWISSENSCHAFTEN 1970; 57:152-62. [PMID: 4392830 DOI: 10.1007/bf00592966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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92
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Davies WE. The disc electrophoretic separation of proteins from various parts of the guinea pig brain. J Neurochem 1970; 17:297-303. [PMID: 5494060 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.1970.tb02216.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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93
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Palmer GC, Davenport RG, Ward JW. Involvement of protein synthesis in the fixation of spinal reflexes in the newborn rat. Brain Res 1970; 17:372-5. [PMID: 5412690 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(70)90096-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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94
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Gispen WH, Schotman P. Effect of hypophysectomy and conditioned avoidance behavior on macromolecule metabolism in the brain stem of the rat. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 1970; 32:236-44. [PMID: 5491103 DOI: 10.1016/s0079-6123(08)61539-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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95
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Barondes SH. Cerebral protein synthesis inhibitors block long-term memory. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 1970; 12:177-205. [PMID: 4918323 DOI: 10.1016/s0074-7742(08)60061-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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96
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Tubbs WE. Primate frontal lesions and the temporal structure of behavior. BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE 1969; 14:347-56. [PMID: 4979476 DOI: 10.1002/bs.3830140502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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97
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Singh UB, Talwar GP. Identification of a protein fraction in the occipital cortex of the monkey rapidly labelled during the exposure of the animal to rhythmically flickering light. J Neurochem 1969; 16:951-9. [PMID: 4980774 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.1969.tb08985.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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98
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Abstract
Learning and memory are important elements of our daily lives, familiar to all through introspection. Yet the mechanisms underlying these processes are still for the most part unknown. Here are problems which combine a maximum of intrinsic and practical interest with a minimum of actual knowledge and understanding. Years of our lives are dedicated to the formation of certain long-term memories and behaviour patterns, yet we have only rudimentary notions of how such ‘schooling’ is best accomplished. There is no certainty in any aspect of the process. We are not sure whether relatively few cells or millions participate in a memory trace; whether these cells change as a whole, or whether the changes are limited to synaptic regions. In fact, we cannot be certain whether the changes are confined to the neurones or whether the glia also participate.
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99
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100
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