Multifunctional Carbon Nanostructures for Advanced Energy Storage Applications

Carbon nanostructures-including graphene, fullerenes, etc.-have found applications in a number of areas synergistically with a number of other materials. These multifunctional carbon nanostructures have recently attracted tremendous interest for energy storage applications due to their large aspect ratios, specific surface areas, and electrical conductivity. This succinct review aims to report on the recent advances in energy storage applications involving these multifunctional carbon nanostructures. The advanced design and testing of multifunctional carbon nanostructures for energy storage applications-specifically, electrochemical capacitors, lithium ion batteries, and fuel cells-are emphasized with comprehensive examples.

Iridium-catalyzed reductive carbon-carbon bond cleavage reaction on a curved pyridylcorannulene skeleton

The cleavage of CC bonds in π-conjugated systems is an important method for controlling their shape and coplanarity. An efficient way for the cleavage of an aromatic CC bond in a typical buckybowl corannulene skeleton is reported. The reaction of 2-pyridylcorannulene with a catalytic amount of IrCl3 ⋅n H2 O in ethylene glycol at 250 °C resulted in a structural transformation from the curved corannulene skeleton to a strain-free flat benzo[ghi]fluoranthene skeleton through a site-selective CC cleavage reaction. This cleavage reaction was found to be driven by both the coordination of the 2-pyridyl substituent to iridium and the relief of strain in the curved corannulene skeleton. This finding should facilitate the design of carbon nanomaterials based on CC bond cleavage reactions.

Possible use of BN-modified fullerene as a nano-biosensor to detect adenine–thymine Watson–Crick base pair in mutagenic tautomeric form: Theoretical approach

The present work deals with the theoretical investigation of electronic structure features and stability of adenine–thymine (AT) and rare tautomer of adenine–thymine (rAT) base pairs along with their complexes with Cu 2+ cation and their interactions with BN doped fullerene ( C 58 BN ). All the calculations have been performed with density functional theory using B3LYP functional. Electronic structures of the two base pairs are almost identical. Hence, it is rather difficult to distinguish between the two base pairs on the basis of their electronic properties. As per our theoretical calculations, we have observed that, BN modified fullerene could act as a nano-biosensor for detection of mispairing between these two complementary bases as well as their Cu 2+ complexes.

Electronic vs steric effects on the stability of anionic species: a case study on the ortho and para regioisomers of organofullerenes

The stability of the anionic species of the ortho and para regioisomers of (MeO)BnC(2n) (Me = methyl, Bn = benzyl, n = 30 or 35) has been examined. The results show that the ortho adducts (electronically favored regioisomers) are stable upon receiving one or two electrons, while the para ones (sterically favored adducts) decompose by removing the methoxy group under similar conditions. Computational calculations indicate that the stability of the anionic species is significantly affected by the electronic structure, where the [5,6]-double bond is responsible for the instability of the reduced species of the para adducts. Further study with 1,15-(MeO)2-2,4-Bn2C60, an adduct with both the ortho and para positioned methoxy, shows that the reduced species is stable, indicating that the 1,2,4,15-configuration is an electronically preferential structure even though it has a [5,6]-double bond.

Synthesis of novel p-tert-butylcalix[4]arene Schiff bases and their complexes with C60, potential HIV-Protease inhibitors

Some p-tert-butylcalix[4]arene Schiff base crown ethers were synthesized, characterized using (1)H, (13)C-NMR, DEPT 135 and Mass spectrometry. Their complexes with C60 were isolated and characterized. The inhibition effect of these complexes on HIVP was studied and found that complexes of 9 and 10 have comparable Ki values to Pepstatine which is known as HIVP inhibitor and used as a control. The synthesis of the ligands, complexes and the inhibition behavior are discussed in this article.

Interfacing proteins with graphitic nanomaterials: from spontaneous attraction to tailored assemblies

Thiscritical reviewpresents a detailed overview of the chemico-physical principles ruling the non-covalent association between proteins and fullerene, carbon nanotubes and graphene towards the creation of fascinating and innovative hybrid materials for biotechnological applications.

Quantum chemical investigations of AlN-doped C60 for use as a nano-biosensor in detection of mispairing between DNA bases

Quantum chemical calculations were carried out to study the electronic structure and stability of adenine-thymine and the rare tautomer of adenine-thymine base pairs along with their Cu 2+ complexes and their interactions with AlN-modified fullerene (C58AlN) using Density Functional Theory (B3LYP method). Since, these two forms of base pairs and their Cu 2+ complexes have almost similar electronic structures, their chemical differentiation is an extremely difficult task. In this investigation, we have observed that AlN-doped C 60 could be used as a potentially viable nanoscale sensor to detect these two base pairs as well as their Cu2+ complexes.

Iron-oxide-supported nanocarbon in lithium-ion batteries, medical, catalytic, and environmental applications

Owing to the three different orbital hybridizations carbon can adopt, the existence of various carbon nanoallotropes differing also in dimensionality has been already affirmed with other structures predicted and expected to emerge in the future. Despite numerous unique features and applications of 2D graphene, 1D carbon nanotubes, or 0D fullerenes, nanodiamonds, and carbon quantum dots, which have been already heavily explored, any of the existing carbon allotropes do not offer competitive magnetic properties. For challenging applications, carbon nanoallotropes are functionalized with magnetic species, especially of iron oxide nature, due to their interesting magnetic properties (superparamagnetism and strong magnetic response under external magnetic fields), easy availability, biocompatibility, and low cost. In addition, combination of iron oxides (magnetite, maghemite, hematite) and carbon nanostructures brings enhanced electrochemical performance and (photo)catalytic capability due to synergetic and cooperative effects. This work aims at reviewing these advanced applications of iron-oxide-supported nanocarbon composites where iron oxides play a diverse role. Various architectures of carbon/iron oxide nanocomposites, their synthetic procedures, physicochemical properties, and applications are discussed in details. A special attention is devoted to hybrids of carbon nanotubes and rare forms (mesoporous carbon, nanofoam) with magnetic iron oxide carriers for advanced environmental technologies. The review also covers the huge application potential of graphene/iron oxide nanocomposites in the field of energy storage, biomedicine, and remediation of environment. Among various discussed medical applications, magnetic composites of zero-dimensional fullerenes and carbon dots are emphasized as promising candidates for complex theranostics and dual magneto-fluorescence imaging.

Vitamin B1 derived blue and green fluorescent carbon nanoparticles for cell-imaging application

A carbon-based fluorescent nanoparticle is considered to be a new generation nontoxic nanoprobe suitable for various bioimaging and sensing applications. However, the synthesis of such a high-quality nanoparticle is challenging, and its application potential is mostly unexplored. Here we report a vitamin B1 carbonization-based approach for blue and green fluorescent carbon nanoparticles of <10 nm size with a fluorescence quantum of up to 76%. We found that carbonization of vitamin B1 in the presence of phosphate salt at ∼90-130 °C for about 2 h produces highly fluorescent carbon nanoparticles of 1-6 nm size. The particle size and fluorescence property can be controlled by varying the reaction temperature and nature of phosphate salt. Elemental analysis shows the incorporation of a large percentage (up to 48 wt %) of other elements (such as nitrogen, oxygen, phophorus, and sulfur) in the carbon matrix. The chemical structure of vitamin B1 (thiamine) is unique in a sense that it consists of a large number of heteroatoms along with unsaturated bonds and offers low-temperature carbonization with the formation of a nanoparticle having an optimum ratio of sp(2) and sp(3) carbon atoms. These carbon nanoparticles have high colloidal stability and stable fluorescence and have been used as fluorescent imaging probes.

Mechanical property and structure of covalent functionalised graphene/epoxy nanocomposites

Thermally reduced graphene nanoplatelets were covalently functionalised via Bingel reaction to improve their dispersion and interfacial bonding with an epoxy resin. Functionalised graphene were characterized by microscopic, thermal and spectroscopic techniques. Thermal analysis of functionalised graphene revealed a significantly higher thermal stability compared to graphene oxide. Inclusion of only 0.1 wt% of functionalised graphene in an epoxy resin showed 22% increase in flexural strength and 18% improvement in storage modulus. The improved mechanical properties of nanocomposites is due to the uniform dispersion of functionalised graphene and strong interfacial bonding between modified graphene and epoxy resin as confirmed by microscopy observations.

25th anniversary article: 25 years of fullerene research in electron transfer chemistry

The past 25 years have served as a test bed for exploring the chemistry and physics, in general, and the electron transfer chemistry, in particular, of low-dimensional carbon. Nevertheless, the new realm started with the advent of fullerenes, followed in chronological order by carbon nanotubes, and, more recently, by graphene. The major thrust of this Review article is to historically recap the versatility of fullerenes regarding the design, the synthesis, and the tests as an electroactive building block in photosynthetic reaction mimics, photovoltaics, and catalysis.

Synthesis of corrole–fullerene dyads via [4 + 2] cycloaddition reaction

Corrole–fullerene dyads were prepared by treating anthracene-functionalized corroles with fullerene. Photo physical study indicated that the excited corrole unit was quenched due to the introduction of fullerene.

Structural, electronic and energetic properties of giant icosahedral fullerenes up to C6000: insights from an ab initio hybrid DFT study

An accurate and detailed electronic structure study of giant carbon fullerenes, benefitting from improved symmetry exploitation in the CRYSTAL14 code.

Metallofullerenes: a new class of MRI agents and more?

Metallofullerenes have incited research endeavors across many disciplines owing to their wide range of properties obtainable by altering the metal component inside the fullerene cage or by a variety of surface functionalities. With a metal component of gadolinium, gadofullerenes have particularly shown promise in MRI applications owing to their high proton relaxivity and isolation of the metal from the biological environment. This article aims to give a perspective on the development of metallofullerenes as MRI contrast agents and further applications that distinguish them as a new class of imaging agent.

Organic synthesis on graphene

Graphene is a two-dimensional crystalline carbon allotrope that has fascinated researchers worldwide and has extended the interest in carbon structures such as fullerenes and nanotubes. In this Account, we use electrical characterization tools to study chemistry on supported graphene. These experiments elucidate the way covalently bound phenyl units can change graphene's physical properties. Can we use chemistry to control electronic properties of graphene? What can we learn from well-known carbon allotropes like fullerenes? The surfaces of fullerenes and graphene show distinct differences in reactivity because of the high strain of sp² carbon in fullerenes compared with the complete lack of strain in graphene. Diazonium chemistry provides a versatile tool for attaching phenyl units covalently to carbon to produce advanced materials and electronic components, but diazonium-based carbon chemistry is strongly influenced by strain. Although fullerenes are highly reactive, graphite (stacks of graphene) remains relatively inert. We chemically introduce n- and p-like doping patterns in two-dimensional graphene using photolithography and extend the ability to chemically control doping to the chemical design of conducting and insulating areas. Thereby we can shape graphene surfaces into functional electronic devices. This Account also describes multistep synthesis on graphene-coated nanoparticles and the introduction of various functional groups on graphene surfaces. Only few functional groups can be produced directly via diazonium chemistry. To overcome this issue, we used these functional groups as starting points for more demanding organic reactions. We covalently attached chelating agents, catalysts, or polymers on the carbon surface. These more complex reactions facilitate the design of electronic modifications, intergraphene connections, and anchors for polymer incorporation. Diazonium chemistry forms strong covalent bridges between graphene and other areas of chemistry.

Soccer goes BOXing: synthetic access to novel [6:0] hexakis[(bisoxazolinyl)methano]fullerenes

The syntheses of [6:0] hexakis[(bisoxazolinyl)methano]fullerenes are presented. Two derivatives could be directly obtained using conditions developed by the Sun group. For the remaining products, a two stage protocol had to be developed. All compounds we obtained in synthetically useful scales and were purified via column chromatography with standard achiral phase. These new fullerene adducts bear six metal-chelation sites which are aligned in the three orthogonal space directions and are disposed on a completely rigid scaffold. First experiments indicate that the generation of six-fold metal-complexes is possible with these structures. This makes them very appealing as ligands in asymmetric catalysis and as building blocks in higher supra-molecular assemblies.

Carbon nanoparticle-based fluorescent bioimaging probes

Fluorescent nanoparticle-based imaging probes have advanced current labelling technology and are expected to generate new medical diagnostic tools based on their superior brightness and photostability compared with conventional molecular probes. Although significant progress has been made in fluorescent semiconductor nanocrystal-based biological labelling and imaging, the presence of heavy metals and the toxicity issues associated with heavy metals have severely limited the application potential of these nanocrystals. Here, we report a fluorescent carbon nanoparticle-based, alternative, nontoxic imaging probe that is suitable for biological staining and diagnostics. We have developed a chemical method to synthesise highly fluorescent carbon nanoparticles 1–10 nm in size; these particles exhibit size-dependent, tunable visible emission. These carbon nanoparticles have been transformed into various functionalised nanoprobes with hydrodynamic diameters of 5–15 nm and have been used as cell imaging probes.

Syntheses, Characterisation and Electrochemical Properties of C70-metal Cluster Complexes

The complexes [Os3(CO)9( μ3- η2: η2: η2-C70)] and [Re3( μ-H)3(CO)9( μ3- η2: η2: η2-C70)] have been prepared by reaction of C70 with [Os3(CO)10(NCMe)2] or [Re3( μ-H)3(CO)11(NCMe)] and their electrochemical properties studied by cyclic voltammetry in chlorobenzene solutions. The complex [Re3( μ-H)3(CO)8(CNCH2Ph)( μ3- η2: η2: η2-C70)] has also been synthesised by reaction between [Re3( μ-H)3(CO)9( μ3- η2: η2: η2-C70)] and PhCH2N=PPh3.

Structural requirements for producing solvent-free room temperature liquid fullerenes

A new class of solvent-free room temperature liquid fullerenes was synthesized by attaching a single substituent of 1,3,5-tris(alkyloxy)benzene unit to C60 or C70 under the Prato conditions. Although the C60 monoadducts were single components after chromatographic purification, the C70 monoadducts were isomeric mixtures due to the prolate spheroidal π-chromophore. The alkyl chain length of the substituents significantly affected both melting points and rheological behavior of the fullerene derivatives. When the alkyl chains were short, the intermolecular π-π interactions of adjacent fullerene cores led to a melting point higher than room temperature. In contrast, in the case of exceedingly long alkyl chains, such as eicosyl (-C20H41) and docosanyl (-C22H45) groups, the van der Waals interactions among neighboring alkyl chains became dominant. Accordingly, only medium alkyl chain lengths could provide solvent-free fluidic fullerenes with low melting points. The rheological measurements of the liquid fullerenes at 25 °C revealed their unique liquid characteristics; molecular-level friction (or viscosity) and nanometer-scale clustering were noticed. It is generally thought that alkyl chains serve as a stabilizer of the fullerene core units. Thus, a longer chain or higher plasticity of the stabilizers would promote the disturbance of the core-core interactions. It was indeed shown that longer alkyl chains resulted in a lower fluid viscosity. It was also found that metastable solid phases were produced by the noticeable van der Waals interaction between the long alkyl chains especially when a symmetric C60 core was adopted. This interesting finding enabled the comparison of electrochemical activities of the C60 unit between the solvent-free liquid and metastable solid form, which revealed a superior electrochemical activity in the liquid state.

Glyconanosomes: disk-shaped nanomaterials for the water solubilization and delivery of hydrophobic molecules

Herein, we describe the first report on a new class of disk-shaped and quite monodisperse water-soluble nanomaterials that we named glyconanosomes (GNS). GNSs were obtained by sliding out the cylindrical structures formed upon self-organization and photopolymerization of glycolipid 1 on single-walled carbon nanotube (SWCNT) sidewalls. GNSs present a sheltered hydrophobic inner cavity formed by the carbonated tails, surrounded by PEG and lactose moieties. The amphiphilic character of GNSs allows the water solubility of insoluble hydrophobic cargos such as a perylene-bisimide derivative, [60]fullerene, or the anti-carcinogenic drug camptothecin (CPT). GNS/C60 inclusion complexes are able to establish specific interactions between peanut agglutinin (PNA) lectin and the lactose moiety surrounding the complexes, while CPT solubilized by GNS shows higher cytotoxicity toward MCF7-type breast cancer cells than CPT alone. Thus, GNS represents an attractive extension of nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems.

Synthesis and photophysical studies of oxazole rings containing compounds as electron accepting units

A series of oxazole derivatives, 5-methyl-2-(p-methylphenyl)-4-acetyl oxazole (MMPAO), 5-methyl-2-(p-methoxyphenyl)-4-acetyl oxazole (MOPAO), 5-methyl-2-(p-N,N'-dimethylamino-phenyl)-4-acetyl oxazole (MDMAPAO) and 5-methyl-2-(p-N,N'-diphenylaminophenyl)-4-acetyl oxazole (MDPAPAO) have been synthesized and studied to compare their photophysical properties. The UV-visible absorption spectra of MDMAPAO and MDPAPAO are bathochromatically shifted as compared to that of MMPAO and MOPAO. The fluorescence emission of MDPAPAO is very sensitive to the polarity of solvents. The magnitude of change in the dipole moment was calculated using the Lippert-Mataga equation. MDPAPAO shows the highest change in the dipole moment (Δu=13.3D) than that of the other three oxazole derivatives. The spectral properties including fluorescence quantum yield and lifetime were determined in solvents with different polarities. MDPAPAO displays the highest fluorescence quantum yield and lifetime, following a bi-exponential fluorescent decay fashion. Our result demonstrates that the excited state of MDPAPAO possesses the property of intramolecular charge transfer.

Metallofullerene-nanoplatform-delivered interstitial brachytherapy improved survival in a murine model of glioblastoma multiforme

Fullerenes are used across scientific disciplines because of their diverse properties gained by altering encapsulated or surface-bound components. In this study, the recently developed theranostic agent based on a radiolabeled functionalized metallofullerene ((177)Lu-DOTA-f-Gd(3)N@C(80)) was synthesized with high radiochemical yield and purity. The efficacy of this agent was demonstrated in two orthotopic xenograft brain tumor models of glioblastoma multiforme (GBM). A dose-dependent improvement in survival was also shown. The in vivo stability of the agent was verified through dual label measurements of biological elimination from the tumor. Overall, these results provide evidence that nanomaterial platforms can be used to deliver effective interstitial brachytherapy.

The self-assembly and aqueous solubilization of [60]fullerene with disaccharides

Solubilization of [60]fullerene in water by complexation with disaccharides in mixed homogeneous solvent system, is described for the first time. The complexation of extremely water-insoluble [60]fullerene dissolved in non-polar solvent toluene and extremely water-soluble disaccharides dissolved in polar solvent DMSO resulted in an unique self-assembled highly crystalline water-soluble [60]fullerene-disaccharide complex. The interaction between [60]fullerene and disaccharides was found to be non-covalent and were characterized by FTIR, UV-Vis, NMR, XRD, and thermogravimetric analysis. The particle size of the lactose-C(60) complex was found to be monodisperse ~60 nm from Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) and matched with the size obtained from Static Light Scattering (SLS). Preliminary studies of radical scavenging on the most stable free radical 2,2'-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DDPH) suggested that complex has potential biological applications.

Photoactivated [3+2] Addition of 6,7-seco-angustilobine B to Fullerene [C60]

A synthesis of a new alkaloid-fullerene conjugate (1) is reported. The reaction was carried out by photoinduced [3+2] cycloaddition of the Alstonia indole alkaloid, 6,7- seco-angustilobine B (2), to fullerene[C60] (3) under aerobic conditions. The major monoaddition photoadduct (1) was characterized unambiguously by UV, IR, MALDI-TOFMS and NMR experiments. A mechanism highlighted by sequential photoinduced electron transfer and radical recombination pathways is also proposed. No significant enhancement in inhibition against M. tuberculosis H37Rv was observed for 1 compared with its parent compounds 2 and 3.