Bacterial sorption of heavy metals

Effect of UV-photofunctionalization on oral bacterial attachment and biofilm formation to titanium implant material

Bacterial biofilm infections remain prevalent reasons for implant failure. Dental implant placement occurs in the oral environment, which harbors a plethora of biofilm-forming bacteria. Due to its trans-mucosal placement, part of the implant structure is exposed to oral cavity and there is no effective measure to prevent bacterial attachment to implant materials. Here, we demonstrated that UV treatment of titanium immediately prior to use (photofunctionalization) affects the ability of human polymicrobial oral biofilm communities to colonize in the presence of salivary and blood components. UV-treatment of machined titanium transformed the surface from hydrophobic to superhydrophilic. UV-treated surfaces exhibited a significant reduction in bacterial attachment as well as subsequent biofilm formation compared to untreated ones, even though overall bacterial viability was not affected. The function of reducing bacterial colonization was maintained on UV-treated titanium that had been stored in a liquid environment before use. Denaturing gradient gel-electrophoresis (DGGE) and DNA sequencing analyses revealed that while bacterial community profiles appeared different between UV-treated and untreated titanium in the initial attachment phase, this difference vanished as biofilm formation progressed. Our findings confirm that UV-photofunctionalization of titanium has a strong potential to improve outcome of implant placement by creating and maintaining antimicrobial surfaces.

Enhanced x-ray emission from nano-particle doped bacteria

Recently, it has been greatly appreciated that intense light matter interaction is modified due to the nano- and microstructures in the target by--surface plasmons, laser energy localization scattering etc. Extreme laser intensities produce dense plasmas and collective mechanisms generate energetic electrons, ions and hard x-rays. Recently, it is postulated that the anharmonic electron motion, driven by ultrashort, high-intensity laser pulses, provides a universal mechanism for the laser absorption. Here, we provide the first demonstration of anharmonic-resonance-aided high laser-absorption in a biological system. At intensities of ∼ 10¹⁶⁻¹⁸ W/cm², 40 fs pulses excite a plasma formed with E. coli bacteria. The density-inhomogeneities due to the micro- and nanostructures in the bacterial target increase anharmonic resonance (AHR) heating and result in a 10⁴-fold enhancement in the hard x-ray yield compared to plain solid targets. These observations lead to novel high-energy x-ray sources that have implications to lithography, imaging and medical applications.

The microbial community of a passive biochemical reactor treating arsenic, zinc, and sulfate-rich seepage

Sulfidogenic biochemical reactors (BCRs) for metal removal that use complex organic carbon have been shown to be effective in laboratory studies, but their performance in the field is highly variable. Successful operation depends on the types of microorganisms supported by the organic matrix, and factors affecting the community composition are unknown. A molecular survey of a field-based BCR that had been removing zinc and arsenic for over 6 years revealed that the microbial community was dominated by methanogens related to Methanocorpusculum sp. and Methanosarcina sp., which co-occurred with Bacteroidetes environmental groups, such as Vadin HA17, in places where the organic matter was more degraded. The metabolic potential for organic matter decomposition by Ruminococcaceae was prevalent in samples with more pyrolyzable carbon. Rhodobium- and Hyphomicrobium-related genera within the Rhizobiales order that have the metabolic potential for dark hydrogen fermentation and methylotrophy, and unclassified Comamonadaceae were the dominant Proteobacteria. The unclassified environmental group Sh765B-TzT-29 was an important Delta-Proteobacteria group in this BCR that co-occurred with the dominant Rhizobiales operational taxonomic units. Organic matter degradation is one driver for shifting the microbial community composition and therefore possibly the performance of these bioreactors over time.

A new fungal isolate, Penidiella sp. strain T9, accumulates the rare earth element dysprosium

With an aim to develop a highly efficient method for the recovery of rare earth elements (REEs) by using microorganisms, we attempted to isolate dysprosium (Dy)-accumulating microorganisms that grow under acidic conditions from environmental samples containing high concentrations of heavy metals. One acidophilic strain, T9, which was isolated from an abandoned mine, decreased the concentration of Dy in medium that contained 100 mg/liter Dy to 53 mg/liter Dy after 3 days of cultivation at pH 2.5. The Dy content in the cell pellet of the T9 strain was 910 μg/mg of dry cells. The T9 strain also accumulated other REEs. Based on the results of 28S-D1/D2 rRNA gene sequencing and morphological characterization, we designated this fungal strain Penidiella sp. T9. Bioaccumulation of Dy was observed on the cell surface of the T9 strain by elemental mapping using scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. Our results indicate that Penidiella sp. T9 has the potential to recover REEs such as Dy from mine drainage and industrial liquid waste under acidic conditions.

Bacteria in Nanoparticle Synthesis: Current Status and Future Prospects

Microbial metal reduction can be a strategy for remediation of metal contaminations and wastes. Bacteria are capable of mobilization and immobilization of metals and in some cases, the bacteria which can reduce metal ions show the ability to precipitate metals at nanometer scale. Biosynthesis of nanoparticles (NPs) using bacteria has emerged as rapidly developing research area in green nanotechnology across the globe with various biological entities being employed in synthesis of NPs constantly forming an impute alternative for conventional chemical and physical methods. Optimization of the processes can result in synthesis of NPs with desired morphologies and controlled sizes, fast and clean. The aim of this review is, therefore, to make a reflection on the current state and future prospects and especially the possibilities and limitations of the above mentioned bio-based technique for industries.

The effect of spent bleaching earth ageing process on its physicochemical and microbial composition and its potential use as a source of fatty acids and triterpenes

This study was aimed at investigating the physicochemical and microbiological changes that took place during the ageing process of spent bleaching earth in the presence of autochthonous microorganisms. Research material included fresh spent bleaching earth (SBE0) and the same material after 3 years of storage at the constant temperature of 20 °C, without aeration and moistening (SBE3). Changes in the chemical composition of analysed waste material were observed during its ageing process point to a spontaneous bioconversion of fat substance towards formation and/or release of free saturated fatty acids C16:0 and C18:0 (14.3 g 100 g(-1) D.M.), triterpenes (8.48 g 100 g(-1) D.M.), cholesterol (3.29 g 100 g(-1) D.M.), small quantities of carbohydrates and esters (0.80 g 100 g(-1) D.M.). This process was accompanied by other changes in physicochemical parameters of the waste material, such as colour, odour and viscosity, decrease in fat content from 28.27 to 24.6 % and that of soluble forms of metals (Mo, Cu, Fe, Zn, Ni, Cr and Mn), ranging from 25 to 75 %, and an increase in pH, from 3.85 to 4.2. At the same time, changes in the microbial consortium were observed.

Impact of environmental stress on biochemical parameters of bacteria reducing chromium

Chromium pollution is produced in connection with industrial processes like in tanneries. It has been suggested that bioremediation could be a good option for clean up. The stress effect of variable chromate levels, pHs and growth temperatures on biochemical parameters of two Cr(VI) reducing bacterial strains Pseudomonas aeruginosa Rb-1 and Ochrobactrum intermedium Rb-2 was investigated. Transmission electrone microscopy (TEM) was performed to study the intracellular distribution of Cr(VI). It was observed that initial stress of 1000 μgmL(-1) caused significant enhancement of all studied biochemical parameters at pH 7.0 and growth temperature of 37 °C showing great bioremediation potential of the strains. Transmission electron microscopy revealed that the distribution of chromium precipitates was not uniform as they were distributed in the cytoplasm as well as found associated with the periplasm and outer membrane. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy showed the possible involvement of carboxyl, amino, sulpohonate and hydroxyl groups present on the bacterial cell surface for the binding of Cr(VI) ions. Cr(VI) stress brought about changes in the distridution of these functional groups. It can be concluded that the investigated bacterial strains adjust well to Cr(VI) stress in terms of biochemical parameters and along that exhibited alteration in morphology.

Mineralogical variables that control the antibacterial effectiveness of a natural clay deposit

As antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains emerge and pose increased global health risks, new antibacterial agents are needed as alternatives to conventional antimicrobials. Naturally occurring antibacterial clays have been identified which are effective in killing antibiotic-resistant bacteria. This study examines a hydrothermally formed antibacterial clay deposit near Crater Lake, OR (USA). Our hypothesis is that antibacterial clays buffer pH and Eh conditions to dissolve unstable mineral phases containing transition metals (primarily Fe(2+)), while smectite interlayers serve as reservoirs for time release of bactericidal components. Model pathogens (Escherichia coli ATCC 25922 and Staphylococcus epidermidis ATCC 14990) were incubated with clays from different alteration zones of the hydrothermal deposit. In vitro antibacterial susceptibility testing showed that reduced mineral zones were bactericidal, while more oxidized zones had variable antibacterial effect. TEM images showed no indication of cell lysis. Cytoplasmic condensation and cell wall accumulations of <100 nm particles were seen within both bacterial populations. Electron energy loss analysis indicates precipitation of intracellular Fe(3+)-oxide nanoparticles (<10 nm) in E. coli after 24 h. Clay minerals and pyrite buffer aqueous solutions to pH 2.5-3.1, Eh > 630 mV and contain elevated level (mM) of soluble Fe (Fe(2+) and Fe(3+)) and Al(3+). Our interpretation is that rapid uptake of Fe(2+) impairs bacterial metabolism by flooding the cell with excess Fe(2+) and overwhelming iron storage proteins. As the intracellular Fe(2+) oxidizes, it produces reactive oxygen species that damage biomolecules and precipitates Fe-oxides. The ability of antibacterial clays to buffer pH and Eh in chronic non-healing wounds to conditions of healthy skin appears key to their healing potential and viability as an alternative to conventional antibiotics.

Elucidating the genetic basis for Escherichia coli defense against silver toxicity using mutant arrays

Bacterial adaptation and defense mechanisms against silver are poorly understood at the genetic level. A library of Escherichia coli gene-deletion mutants was used to show that clones lacking sodB (coding for oxidative stress protection), lon (protein damage repair), or cusR (metal efflux pump) are quite sensitive to silver (with 7.3 ± 9.1%, 5.3 ± 1.8%, and 0.4 ± 0.1% of cells surviving, respectively, compared with 90.1 ± 5.4% survival for wild-type E. coli, after 6-h exposure to 8 mg/L AgNO(3)), suggesting the importance of the coded functions as defense mechanisms. Mutants lacking pgaB or wcaD, which code for production of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS), also showed significant (p < 0.05) sensitivity to silver exposure (23.4 ± 16.2% and 23.1 ± 32.6% survival, respectively). Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) with scanning TEM/energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy analysis showed accumulation of silver nanoparticles within EPS, suggesting that EPS serve as a protective barrier that also immobilizes dissolved silver as silver nanoparticles.

Mar Piccolo of Taranto: Vibrio biodiversity in ecotoxicology approach

Microorganisms play an indispensable role in the ecological functioning of marine environment. Some species are sensitive while others are insensitive for a specific pollutant. The aim of this work is a preliminary study of the quantitative and qualitative distribution of cultivable vibrios in sediments and water samples characterized by different toxicity levels. For 1 year, in three suitably selected sampling stations of Mar Piccolo in Taranto (Ionian Sea, Italy), we have evaluated the toxicity level by Microtox® system, vibrios, total, and fecal coliform densities. The results of the Microtox® tests showed sediments characterized by an elevated level of toxicity, while the interstitial water of the same sites always showed biostimulatory phenomenon. The quantitative results show that vibrios and coliforms are more abundant in water than in sediment samples. The most often isolated strains were: Vibrio alginolyticus, Vibrio mediterranei, Vibrio metschinkovii, and Vibrio splendidus II. This work is the first example of study on the distribution of Vibrio species related to toxicity evaluation conducted by the Microtox® bioassay. The results show the different distribution of Vibrionaceae in two environmental matrices analyzed and characterized by different levels of toxicity.

Antimicrobial activity of metals: mechanisms, molecular targets and applications

Metals have been used as antimicrobial agents since antiquity, but throughout most of history their modes of action have remained unclear. Recent studies indicate that different metals cause discrete and distinct types of injuries to microbial cells as a result of oxidative stress, protein dysfunction or membrane damage. Here, we describe the chemical and toxicological principles that underlie the antimicrobial activity of metals and discuss the preferences of metal atoms for specific microbial targets. Interdisciplinary research is advancing not only our understanding of metal toxicity but also the design of metal-based compounds for use as antimicrobial agents and alternatives to antibiotics.

XPS, EXAFS, and FTIR as tools to probe the unexpected adsorption-coupled reduction of U(VI) to U(V) and U(IV) on Borassus flabellifer-based adsorbents

Palm shell-based adsorbents prepared under five different thermochemical conditions and palm shell powder have been shown to be quite effective for removal of uranium from aqueous solutions. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) have been used to determine information about the speciation and binding of uranium on the adsorbents under study. Studies indicate that the uranium which is present as uranyl ion in aqueous solution is present in mixed valence states (U(IV), U(V), and U(VI)) when it is bound to the adsorbents. The mechanism of adsorption is likely to be adsorption-coupled reduction as well as complexation. Adsorption of uranium, cesium, and iron was found to be quantitative in binary as well as ternary mixtures.

Bioremediation and tolerance of humans to heavy metals through microbial processes: a potential role for probiotics?

The food and water we consume are often contaminated with a range of chemicals and heavy metals, such as lead, cadmium, arsenic, chromium, and mercury, that are associated with numerous diseases. Although heavy-metal exposure and contamination are not a recent phenomenon, the concentration of metals and the exposure to populations remain major issues despite efforts at remediation. The ability to prevent and manage this problem is still a subject of much debate, with many technologies ineffective and others too expensive for practical large-scale use, especially for developing nations where major pollution occurs. This has led researchers to seek alternative solutions for decontaminating environmental sites and humans themselves. A number of environmental microorganisms have long been known for their ability to bind metals, but less well appreciated are human gastrointestinal bacteria. Species such as Lactobacillus, present in the human mouth, gut, and vagina and in fermented foods, have the ability to bind and detoxify some of these substances. This review examines the current understanding of detoxication mechanisms of lactobacilli and how, in the future, humans and animals might benefit from these organisms in remediating environmental contamination of food.

Tolerance to and accumulation of cadmium by the mycelium of the fungi Scleroderma citrinum and Pisolithus tinctorius

The behavior of ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungi on exposure to cadmium dependent upon isolation remains a poorly understood phenomenon. The in vitro growth, tolerance, and accumulation of Cd were studied in three strains of ECM fungi exposed to six Cd concentrations (0-10 mg L(-1)). The fungi studied were a strain of Scleroderma citrinum Persoon (Sc) isolated from a tailings heap containing 5 mg kg(-1) available Cd, and two strains of Pisolithus tinctorius (Pers.) Coker and Couch from unpolluted sites (Pt1 and Pt2), both common ECM fungi used for remediation. The growth kinetic (36 days) of Sc was not affected by Cd concentration. By contrast, the ED(50) in Pt1 and Pt2 occurred at 4.8 and 6.9 mg L(-1) of Cd, respectively. The biomass of the three fungi exposed to the highest Cd concentration (10 mg L(-1)) was significantly different. Sc presented the highest biomass, while this was strongly reduced for Pt1 and Pt2. The tolerance index for Sc ranged from 78% to 95% at all Cd concentrations tested, while for Pt1 it was 49% and 31%, and for Pt2 it was 62% and 35% at 5 and 10 mg of Cd L(-1), respectively. The mycelium of both Pt strains accumulated more Cd than the Sc mycelium. At the highest Cd concentration, Pt1 and Pt2 accumulated 1.9 and 1.7 times more Cd than Sc. This study suggests that regardless of the differences in tolerance to Cd by the three ECM fungi, they could have biotechnological applications for soil remediation. However, Sc has greater possibilities of being used successfully when high concentrations of Cd prevail in the environment.

Intrinsic characteristics of Cr⁶⁺-resistant bacteria isolated from an electroplating industry polluted soils for plant growth-promoting activities

The Cr(6+)-resistant plant growth-promoting bacteria was isolated from soil samples that were collected from an electroplating industry at Coimbatore, India, that had tolerated chromium concentrations up to 500 mg Cr(6+)/L in Luria-Bertani medium. Based on morphology, physiology, and biochemical characteristics, the strain was identified as Bacillus sp. following the Bergey's manual of determinative bacteriology. Evaluation of plant growth-promoting parameters has revealed the intrinsic ability of the strain for the production of indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), siderophore, and solubilization of insoluble phosphate. Bacillus sp. have utilized tryptophan as a precursor for their growth and produced IAA (122 μg/mL). Bacillus sp. also exhibited the production of siderophore that was tested qualitatively using Chrome Azurol S (CAS) assay solution and utilized the insoluble tricalcium phosphate as the sole source of phosphate exhibiting higher rate of phosphate solubilization after 72 h of incubation (1.45 μg/mL). Extent of Cr(6+) uptake and accumulation of Cr(6+) in the cell wall of Bacillus sp. was investigated using atomic absorption spectrophotometer and scanning electron microscope-energy dispersive spectroscopy, respectively. The congenital capability of this Cr(6+)-resistant plant growth-promoting Bacillus sp. could be employed as bacterial inoculum for the improvement of phytoremediation in heavy metal contaminated soils.

Global transcriptome analysis of Bacillus cereus ATCC 14579 in response to silver nitrate stress

Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) were synthesized using Bacillus cereus strains. Earlier, we had synthesized monodispersive crystalline silver nanoparticles using B. cereus PGN1 and ATCC14579 strains. These strains have showed high level of resistance to silver nitrate (1 mM) but their global transcriptomic response has not been studied earlier. In this study, we investigated the cellular and metabolic response of B. cereus ATCC14579 treated with 1 mM silver nitrate for 30 & 60 min. Global expression profiling using genomic DNA microarray indicated that 10% (n = 524) of the total genes (n = 5234) represented on the microarray were up-regulated in the cells treated with silver nitrate. The majority of genes encoding for chaperones (GroEL), nutrient transporters, DNA replication, membrane proteins, etc. were up-regulated. A substantial number of the genes encoding chemotaxis and flagellar proteins were observed to be down-regulated. Motility assay of the silver nitrate treated cells revealed reduction in their chemotactic activity compared to the control cells. In addition, 14 distinct transcripts overexpressed from the 'empty' intergenic regions were also identified and proposed as stress-responsive non-coding small RNAs.

Biomagnification of cadmium selenide quantum dots in a simple experimental microbial food chain

Previous studies have shown that engineered nanomaterials can be transferred from prey to predator, but the ecological impacts of this are mostly unknown. In particular, it is not known if these materials can be biomagnified-a process in which higher concentrations of materials accumulate in organisms higher up in the food chain. Here, we show that bare CdSe quantum dots that have accumulated in Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteria can be transferred to and biomagnified in the Tetrahymena thermophila protozoa that prey on the bacteria. Cadmium concentrations in the protozoa predator were approximately five times higher than their bacterial prey. Quantum-dot-treated bacteria were differentially toxic to the protozoa, in that they inhibited their own digestion in the protozoan food vacuoles. Because the protozoa did not lyse, largely intact quantum dots remain available to higher trophic levels. The observed biomagnification from bacterial prey is significant because bacteria are at the base of environmental food webs. Our findings illustrate the potential for biomagnification as an ecological impact of nanomaterials.

Equilibrium, thermodynamic and kinetic studies on biosorption of Mn(II) from aqueous solution by Pseudomonas sp., Staphylococcus xylosus and Blakeslea trispora cells

Biosorption of Mn(II) from aqueous solutions using Pseudomonas sp., Staphylococcus xylosus and Blakeslea trispora cells was investigated under various experimental conditions of pH, biomass concentration, contact time and temperature. The optimum pH value was determined to 6.0 and the optimum biomass concentration to 1.0 g L(-1) for all types of cells. Mn(II) biosorption was found to fit better to the Langmuir model for Pseudomonas sp. and B. trispora and to Freundlich model for S. xylosus. Langmuir model gave maximum Mn(II) uptake capacity 109 mg g(-1) for Pseudomonas sp. and much lower, 59 mg g(-1) and 40 mg g(-1) for S. xylosus and B. trispora, respectively. Pseudo-second-order kinetic model was also found to be in good agreement with the experimental results. Thermodynamic parameters of the adsorption confirmed the endothermic nature of sorption process with positive heat of enthalpy, accompanied by a positive value of entropy change. Interestingly, desorption experiments by treating biomass with 0.1 M HNO(3) solution resulted to more than 88% recovery of the adsorbed Mn(II) from Pseudomonas sp. and almost 95% and 99% from S. xylosus and B. trispora cells respectively, thus indicating that Mn(II) can be easily and quantitatively recovered from biomass.

Effects of antibacterial mineral leachates on the cellular ultrastructure, morphology, and membrane integrity of Escherichia coli and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus

Background

We have previously identified two mineral mixtures, CB07 and BY07, and their respective aqueous leachates that exhibit in vitro antibacterial activity against a broad spectrum of pathogens. The present study assesses cellular ultrastructure and membrane integrity of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and Escherichia coli after exposure to CB07 and BY07 aqueous leachates.

Methods

We used scanning and transmission electron microscopy to evaluate E. coli and MRSA ultrastructure and morphology following exposure to antibacterial leachates. Additionally, we employed Baclight LIVE/DEAD staining and flow cytometry to investigate the cellular membrane as a possible target for antibacterial activity.

Results

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) imaging of E. coli and MRSA revealed intact cells following exposure to antibacterial mineral leachates. TEM images of MRSA showed disruption of the cytoplasmic contents, distorted cell shape, irregular membranes, and distorted septa of dividing cells. TEM images of E. coli exposed to leachates exhibited different patterns of cytoplasmic condensation with respect to the controls and no apparent change in cell envelope structure. Although bactericidal activity of the leachates occurs more rapidly in E. coli than in MRSA, LIVE/DEAD staining demonstrated that the membrane of E. coli remains intact, while the MRSA membrane is permeabilized following exposure to the leachates.

Conclusions

These data suggest that the leachate antibacterial mechanism of action differs for Gram-positive and Gram-negative organisms. Upon antibacterial mineral leachate exposure, structural integrity is retained, however, compromised membrane integrity accounts for bactericidal activity in Gram-positive, but not in Gram-negative cells.

Microcalorimetric and potentiometric titration studies on the adsorption of copper by P. putida and B. thuringiensis and their composites with minerals

In order to have a better understanding of the interactions of heavy metals with bacteria and minerals in soil and associated environments, isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC), potentiometric titration and equilibrium sorption experiments were conducted to investigate the adsorption behavior of Cu(II) by Bacillus thuringiensis, Pseudomonas putida and their composites with minerals. The interaction of montmorillonite with bacteria increased the reactive sites and resulted in greater adsorption for Cu(II) on their composites, while decreased adsorption sites and capacities for Cu(II) were observed on goethite-bacteria composites. A gram-positive bacterium B. thuringiensis played a more important role than a gram-negative bacterium P. putida in determining the properties of the bacteria-minerals interfaces. The enthalpy changes (DeltaH(ads)) from endothermic (6.14 kJ mol(-1)) to slightly exothermic (-0.78 kJ mol(-1)) suggested that Cu(II) is complexed with the anionic oxygen ligands on the surface of bacteria-mineral composites. Large entropies (32.96-58.89 J mol(-1) K(-1)) of Cu(II) adsorption onto bacteria-mineral composites demonstrated the formation of inner-sphere complexes in the presence of bacteria. The thermodynamic data implied that Cu(II) mainly bound to the carboxyl and phosphoryl groups as inner-sphere complexes on bacteria and mineral-bacteria composites.

Removal of Cd(II) from aqueous solution with activated Firmiana Simplex Leaf: behaviors and affecting factors

Cadmium pollution is known to cause severe public health problems. This study is intended to examine the effect of an activated Firmiana Simplex Leaf (FSL) on the removal of Cd(II) from aqueous solution. Results showed that the active Firmiana Simplex Leaf could efficiently remove Cd(II) from wastewater due to the preservation of beneficial groups (amine, carboxyl, and phosphate) at a temperature of 250 degrees C. The adsorbent component, dosage, concentration of the initial solute, and the pH of the solution were all found to have significant effects on Cd(II) adsorption. The kinetic constants were predicted by pseudo-first-order kinetics, and the thermodynamic analysis revealed the endothermic and spontaneous nature of the adsorption. FT-IR and XRD analyses confirmed the strong adsorption between beneficial groups and cadmium ions, and the adsorption capacity was calculated to be 117.786 mg g(-1) according to the Langmuir isotherm.

Diversity of dissimilatory sulfite reductase genes (dsrAB) in a salt marsh impacted by long-term acid mine drainage

Sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) play a major role in the coupled biogeochemical cycling of sulfur and chalcophilic metal(loid)s. By implication, they can exert a strong influence on the speciation and mobility of multiple metal(loid) contaminants. In this study, we combined DsrAB gene sequencing and sulfur isotopic profiling to identify the phylogeny and distribution of SRB and to assess their metabolic activity in salt marsh sediments exposed to acid mine drainage (AMD) for over 100 years. Recovered dsrAB sequences from three sites sampled along an AMD flow path indicated the dominance of a single Desulfovibrio species. Other major sequence clades were related most closely to Desulfosarcina, Desulfococcus, Desulfobulbus, and Desulfosporosinus species. The presence of metal sulfides with low delta(34)S values relative to delta(34)S values of pore water sulfate showed that sediment SRB populations were actively reducing sulfate under ambient conditions (pH of approximately 2), although possibly within less acidic microenvironments. Interestingly, delta(34)S values for pore water sulfate were lower than those for sulfate delivered during tidal inundation of marsh sediments. 16S rRNA gene sequence data from sediments and sulfur isotope data confirmed that sulfur-oxidizing bacteria drove the reoxidation of biogenic sulfide coupled to oxygen or nitrate reduction over a timescale of hours. Collectively, these findings imply a highly dynamic microbially mediated cycling of sulfate and sulfide, and thus the speciation and mobility of chalcophilic contaminant metal(loid)s, in AMD-impacted marsh sediments.

Ability of anaerobic microorganisms to associate with iodine: 125I tracer experiments using laboratory strains and enriched microbial communities from subsurface formation water

Iodine-129 ((129)I) is a fission product with a half-life of 15.7 million years. Because of its long half-life, high mobility, and high affinity to the human body, (129)I is considered as one of the most problematic radionuclides in nuclear waste disposals in deep geological formation. In this study, 16 strains of anaerobic microorganisms, including nitrate-reducing bacteria, iron-reducing bacteria, sulfate-reducing bacteria, and methanogens, were cultured anaerobically with a radioiodine tracer ((125)I) to determine whether they possess the ability to associate with iodine. We evaluated it by association efficiency, that was determined by measuring the decrease in (125)I activity in the culture supernatant. It was found that the efficiency of about half of the strains was below detection limit (1.0%), and that of the remaining strains varied from 1.0% to 6.3%, although it was not statistically significant. Similar experiments were conducted by using anaerobic microbial communities inhabiting the iodine-rich subsurface formation water collected from the Minami-kanto gas field in Japan. The specific uptake of iodine by the microbial communities was estimated to be 0.71-2.0 microg g(-1) dry weight of biomass, indicating that the association ability was, if present, very limited. These results suggest that anaerobic microorganisms, in contrast with aerobic microorganisms, neither enhance nor repress the mobility of (129)I, in the case of discharge of this radionuclide from disposal facilities into the surrounding environment.

Adsorption kinetics of Pb and Cd by two plant growth promoting rhizobacteria

A bench study was carried out to characterize the kinetics of two plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) Azotobacter chroococcum and Bacillus megaterium to adsorb heavy metals from solution. Adsorption of Pb(2+) and Cd(2+) by bacterial cells was processed quickly with an equilibration achieved within 5 min. The adsorptions were fitted well with Freundlich and Langmuir isotherm models. The comparison of isotherm parameters indicated that A. chroococcum had a stronger capacity to bind metal ions than B. megaterium, with an average increase of 59.8% for Pb(2+) and 75.6% for Cd(2+), respectively. Both bacteria had a stronger affinity to Pb(2+) than Cd(2+) since Pb(2+) was more easily bound with the phosphoryl groups on the cell surface than Cd(2+). This demonstrated that the presence of bacteria in the rhizosphere may result in the reduction of mobile ions in soil solution.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa KUCD1, a possible candidate for cadmium bioremediation

A cadmium (8 mM) resistant Pseudomonasaeruginosa strain KUCd1 exhibiting high Cd accumulation under in vitro aerobic condition has been reported. The isolate showed a significant ability to remove more than 75% and 89% of the soluble cadmium during the active growth phase from the growth medium and from Cd-amended industrial wastewater under growth supportive condition. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDXS) suggest the presence of Cd in the cells from mid stationary phase. The cell fractionation study revealed membrane and periplasm to be the major accumulating site in this strain. The chemical nature of the accumulated Cd was studied by X-ray powder diffraction analysis.

In vivo studies to elucidate the role of extracellular polymeric substances from Azotobacter in immobilization of heavy metals

The role of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) produced by the heavy metal-resistant strain of Azotobacter spp. in restricting the uptake of cadmium (Cd) and chromium (Cr) by wheat plants cultivated in soils contaminated with the respective heavy metals has been demonstrated. A heavy metal-resistant strain of Azotobacter spp. was isolated and identified. Minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) of Cd2+ and CrO4(2-) were determined to be 20 and 10 mg L(-1), respectively. Under in vitro conditions, the EPS produced by the strain could bind 15.17 +/- 0.58 mg g(-1) of Cd2+ and 21.9 +/- 0.08 mg g(-1) of CrO4(2-). Fourier transform infrared spectra of the EPS revealed the presence of functional groups like carboxyl (-COOH) and hydroxyl (-OH), primarily involved in metal ion binding. Under pot culture experiments, the isolated strain of Azotobacter was added to the metal-contaminated soils in the form of free cells and immobilized cells. The total Azotobacter count and plant metal concentrations under different treatments showed a negative coefficient between the Azotobacter population and plant Cd (-0.496) and Cr (-0.455). Thus it could be inferred that Azotobacter spp. is involved in metal ion complexation either through EPS or through cell wall lipopolysaccharides (LPS).

Effects of soluble cadmium salts versus CdSe quantum dots on the growth of planktonic Pseudomonas aeruginosa

With their increased use, engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) will enterthe environment where they may be altered by bacteria and affect bacterial processes. Metallic ENMs, such as CdSe quantum dots (QDs), are toxic due to the release of dissolved heavy metals, but the effects of cadmium ions versus intact QDs are mostly unknown. Here, planktonic Pseudomonas aeruginosa PG201 bacteria were cultured with similar total cadmium concentrations as either fully dissolved cadmium acetate (Cd(CH3COO)2) or ligand capped CdSe QDs, and cellular morphology, growth parameters, intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), along with the metal and metalloid fates were measured. QDs dissolved partially in growth media, but dissolution was less in biotic cultures compared to sterile controls. Dose-dependent growth effects were similar for low concentrations of either cadmium salts or QDs, but effects differed above a concentration threshold of 50 mg/L(total cadmium basis) where (1) the growth of QD-treated cells was more impaired, (2) the membranes of QD-grown cells were damaged, and (3) QD-grown cells contained QD-sized CdSe cytoplasmic inclusions in addition to Se0 and dissolved cadmium. For most concentrations, intracellular ROS were higher for QD-versus cadmium salts-grown bacteria. Taken together, QDs were more toxic to this opportunistic pathogen than cadmium ions, and were affected by cells through QD extracellular stabilization, intracellular enrichment and cell-associated decay.

Allocation plasticity and plant-metal partitioning: meta-analytical perspectives in phytoremediation

In this meta-analysis of plant growth and metal uptake parameters, we selected 19 studies of heavy metal (HM) phytoremediation to evaluate trends of allocation plasticity and plant-metal partitioning in roots relative to shoots. We calculated indexes of biomass allocation and metal distribution for numerous metals and plant species among four families of interest for phytoremediation purposes (e.g. Brassicaceae, Fabaceae, Poaceae, and Solanaceae). We determined that plants shift their biomass and distribute metals more to roots than shoots possibly to circumvent the challenges of increasing soil-HM conditions. Although this shift is viewed as a stress-avoidance strategy complementing intrinsic stress-tolerance, our findings indicate that plants express different levels of allocation plasticity and metal partitioning depending on their overall growth strategy and status as 'fast-grower' or 'slow-grower' species. Accordingly, we propose a conceptual model of allocation plasticity and plant-metal partitioning comparing 'fast-grower' and 'slow-grower' strategies and outlining applications for remediation practices.

CHEMICAL AND MINERALOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FRENCH GREEN CLAYS USED FOR HEALING

The worldwide emergence of infectious diseases, together with the increasing incidence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, elevate the need to properly detect, prevent, and effectively treat these infections. The overuse and misuse of common antibiotics in recent decades stimulates the need to identify new inhibitory agents. Therefore, natural products like clays, that display antibacterial properties, are of particular interest.The absorptive properties of clay minerals are well documented for healing skin and gastrointestinal ailments. However, the antibacterial properties of clays have received less scientific attention. French green clays have recently been shown to heal Buruli ulcer, a necrotic or 'flesh-eating' infection caused by Mycobacterium ulcerans. Assessing the antibacterial properties of these clays could provide an inexpensive treatment for Buruli ulcer and other skin infections.Antimicrobial testing of the two clays on a broad-spectrum of bacterial pathogens showed that one clay promotes bacterial growth (possibly provoking a response from the natural immune system), while another kills bacteria or significantly inhibits bacterial growth. This paper compares the mineralogy and chemical composition of the two French green clays used in the treatment of Buruli ulcer.Mineralogically, the two clays are dominated by 1Md illite and Fe-smectite. Comparing the chemistry of the clay minerals and exchangeable ions, we conclude that the chemistry of the clay, and the surface properties that affect pH and oxidation state, control the chemistry of the water used to moisten the clay poultices and contribute the critical antibacterial agent(s) that ultimately debilitate the bacteria.

Redox-reactive membrane vesicles produced by Shewanella

This manuscript is dedicated to our friend, mentor, and coauthor Dr Terry Beveridge, who devoted his scientific career to advancing fundamental aspects of microbial ultrastructure using innovative electron microscopic approaches. During his graduate studies with Professor Robert Murray, Terry provided some of the first glimpses and structural evaluations of the regular surface arrays (S-layers) of Gram-negative bacteria (Beveridge & Murray, 1974, 1975, 1976a). Beginning with his early electron microscopic assessments of metal binding by cell walls from Gram-positive bacteria (Beveridge & Murray, 1976b, 1980) and continuing with more than 30 years of pioneering research on microbe-mineral interactions (Hoyle & Beveridge, 1983, 1984; Ferris et al., 1986; Gorby et al., 1988; Beveridge, 1989; Mullen et al., 1989; Urrutia Mera et al., 1992; Mera & Beveridge, 1993; Brown et al., 1994; Konhauser et al., 1994; Beveridge et al., 1997; Newman et al., 1997; Lower et al., 2001; Glasauer et al., 2002; Baesman et al., 2007), Terry helped to shape the developing field of biogeochemistry. Terry and his associates are also widely regarded for their research defining the structure and function of outer membrane vesicles from Gram-negative bacteria that facilitate processes ranging from the delivery of pathogenic enzymes to the possible exchange of genetic information. The current report represents the confluence of two of Terry's thematic research streams by demonstrating that membrane vesicles produced by dissimilatory metal-reducing bacteria from the genus Shewanella catalyze the enzymatic transformation and precipitation of heavy metals and radionuclides. Under low-shear conditions, membrane vesicles are commonly tethered to intact cells by electrically conductive filaments known as bacterial nanowires. The functional role of membrane vesicles and associated nanowires is not known, but the potential for mineralized vesicles that morphologically resemble nanofossils to serve as palaeontological indicators of early life on Earth and as biosignatures of life on other planets is recognized.