Cul7/p185/p193 binding to simian virus 40 large T antigen has a role in cellular transformation

SV40 large T antigen targets multiple cellular pathways to elicit cellular transformation

DNA tumor viruses such as simian virus 40 (SV40) express dominant acting oncoproteins that exert their effects by associating with key cellular targets and altering the signaling pathways they govern. Thus, tumor viruses have proved to be invaluable aids in identifying proteins that participate in tumorigenesis, and in understanding the molecular basis for the transformed phenotype. The roles played by the SV40-encoded 708 amino-acid large T antigen (T antigen), and 174 amino acid small T antigen (t antigen), in transformation have been examined extensively. These studies have firmly established that large T antigen's inhibition of the p53 and Rb-family of tumor suppressors and small T antigen's action on the pp2A phosphatase, are important for SV40-induced transformation. It is not yet clear if the Rb, p53 and pp2A proteins are the only targets through which SV40 transforms cells, or whether additional targets await discovery. Finally, expression of SV40 oncoproteins in transgenic mice results in effects ranging from hyperplasia to invasive carcinoma accompanied by metastasis, depending on the tissue in which they are expressed. Thus, the consequences of SV40 action on these targets depend on the cell type being studied. The identification of additional cellular targets important for transformation, and understanding the molecular basis for the cell type-specific action of the viral T antigens are two important areas through which SV40 will continue to contribute to our understanding of cancer.

Expression of JC virus regulatory proteins in human cancer: potential mechanisms for tumourigenesis

JC virus (JCV) is a human polyomavirus that is the etiologic agent of the fatal demyelinating disease of the central nervous system known as progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML). JCV is also linked to some tumours of the brain and other organs as evidenced by the presence of JCV DNA sequences and the expression of viral proteins in clinical samples. Since JCV is highly oncogenic in experimental animals and transforms cells in culture, it is possible that JCV contributes to the malignant phenotype of human tumours with which it is associated. JCV encodes three non-capsid regulatory proteins: large T-antigen, small t-antigen and agnoprotein that interact with a number of cellular target proteins and interfere with certain normal cellular functions. In this review, we discuss how JCV proteins deregulate signalling pathways especially ones pertaining to transcriptional regulation and cell cycle control. These effects may be involved in the progression of JCV-associated tumours and may represent potential therapeutic targets.

Simian virus 40 large T antigen's association with the CUL7 SCF complex contributes to cellular transformation

Simian virus 40 large T antigen (T Ag) is capable of immortalizing and transforming rodent cells. The transforming activity of T Ag is due in large part to perturbation of the tumor suppressor proteins p53 and the retinoblastoma (pRB) family members. Inactivation of these tumor suppressors may not be sufficient for T Ag-mediated cellular transformation. It has been shown that T Ag associates with an SCF-like complex that contains a member of the cullin family of E3 ubiquitin ligases, CUL7, as well as SKP1, RBX1, and an F-box protein, FBXW8. We identified T Ag residues 69 to 83 as required for T Ag binding to the CUL7 complex. We demonstrate that delta69-83 T Ag, while it lost its ability to associate with CUL7, retained binding to p53 and pRB family members. In the presence of CUL7, wild-type (WT) T Ag but not delta69-83 T Ag was able to induce proliferation of mouse embryo fibroblasts, an indication of cellular transformation. In contrast, WT and delta69-83 T Ag enabled mouse embryo fibroblasts to proliferate to similarly high densities in the absence of CUL7. Our data suggest that, in addition to p53 and the pRB family members, T Ag serves to bind to and inactivate the growth-suppressing properties of CUL7. In addition, these results imply that, at least in the presence of T Ag, CUL7 may function as a tumor suppressor.

Intestinal dysplasia induced by simian virus 40 T antigen is independent of p53

Transgenic mice expressing simian virus 40 large T antigen in enterocytes develop intestinal hyperplasia that progresses to dysplasia with age. Hyperplasia is dependent on T antigen binding to the retinoblastoma (pRb) family of tumor suppressor proteins. Mice expressing a truncated T antigen that inactivates the pRb-family, but is defective for binding p53, exhibit hyperplasia but do not progress to dysplasia. We hypothesized that the inhibition of the pRb family leads to entry of enterocytes into the cell cycle, resulting in hyperplasia, while inactivation of p53 is required for progression to dysplasia. Therefore, we examined T antigen/p53 complexes from the intestines of transgenic mice. We found that T antigen did not induce p53 stabilization, and we could not detect T antigen/p53 complexes in villus enterocytes. In contrast, T antigen expression led to a large increase in the levels of the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p21. Furthermore, mice in which pRb was inactivated by a truncated T antigen in a p53 null background exhibited intestinal hyperplasia but no progression to dysplasia. These data indicate that loss of p53 function does not play a role in T antigen-induced dysplasia in the intestine. Rather, some unknown function of T antigen is essential for progression beyond hyperplasia.

Towards safe, non-viral therapeutic gene expression in humans

The potential dangers of using viruses to deliver and integrate DNA into host cells in gene therapy have been poignantly highlighted in recent clinical trials. Safer, non-viral gene delivery approaches have been largely ignored in the past because of their inefficient delivery and the resulting transient transgene expression. However, recent advances indicate that efficient, long-term gene expression can be achieved by non-viral means. In particular, integration of DNA can be targeted to specific genomic sites without deleterious consequences and it is possible to maintain transgenes as small episomal plasmids or artificial chromosomes. The application of these approaches to human gene therapy is gradually becoming a reality.

A hitchhiker's guide to the cullin ubiquitin ligases: SCF and its kin

The SCF (Skp1-Cullin-F-box) E3 ubiquitin ligase family was discovered through genetic requirements for cell cycle progression in budding yeast. In these multisubunit enzymes, an invariant core complex, composed of the Skp1 linker protein, the Cdc53/Cul1 scaffold protein and the Rbx1/Roc1/Hrt1 RING domain protein, engages one of a suite of substrate adaptors called F-box proteins that in turn recruit substrates for ubiquitination by an associated E2 enzyme. The cullin-RING domain-adaptor architecture has diversified through evolution, such that in total many hundreds of distinct SCF and SCF-like complexes enable degradation of myriad substrates. Substrate recognition by adaptors often depends on posttranslational modification of the substrate, which thus places substrate stability under dynamic regulation by intracellular signaling events. SCF complexes control cell proliferation through degradation of critical regulators such as cyclins, CDK inhibitors and transcription factors. A plethora of other processes in development and disease are controlled by other SCF-like complexes, including those based on Cul2-SOCS-box adaptor protein and Cul3-BTB domain adaptor protein combinations. Recent structural insights into SCF-like complexes have begun to illuminate aspects of substrate recognition and catalytic reaction mechanisms.

Transactivation of E2F-regulated genes by polyomavirus large T antigen: evidence for a two-step mechanism

Polyomavirus large T antigen transactivates a variety of genes whose products are involved in S phase induction. These genes are regulated by the E2F family of transcription factors, which are under the control of the pocket protein retinoblastoma protein and its relatives p130 and p107. The viral protein causes a dissociation of E2F-pocket protein complexes that results in transactivation of the genes. This reaction requires the N-terminal binding site for pocket proteins and the J domain that binds chaperones. We found earlier that a mutation of the zinc finger located within the C-terminal domain, a region assumed to function mainly in the replication of viral DNA, also interferes with transactivation. Here we show that binding of the histone acetyltransferase coactivator complex CBP/p300-PCAF to the C terminus correlates with the ability of large T antigen to transactivate genes. This interaction results in promoter-specific acetylation of histones. Inactive mutant proteins with changes within the C-terminal domain were nevertheless able to dissociate the E2F pocket protein complexes, indicating that this dissociation is a necessary but insufficient step in the T antigen-induced transactivation of genes. It has to be accompanied by a second step involving the T antigen-mediated recruitment of a histone acetyltransferase complex.

The SV40 large T antigen contains a decoy phosphodegron that mediates its interactions with Fbw7/hCdc4

Cell transformation by simian virus 40 (SV40) results mostly from the highly oncogenic activities of the large T antigen (LT), which corrupts the cellular checkpoint mechanisms that guard cell division and the transcription, replication, and repair of DNA. The most prominent LT targets are the retinoblastoma protein (pRb) and p53. Here we report that LT binds directly to Fbw7, the substrate recognition component of the SCF(Fbw7) ubiquitin ligase and a human tumor suppressor. LT binding mislocalizes the nucleolar Fbw7gamma isoform to the nucleoplasm. Interestingly, the binding of LT to Fbw7 occurs via a decoy phospho-epitope within the C terminus of LT that closely mimics the consensus Cdc4 phospho-degron found within Fbw7 substrates. We demonstrate that, using this mode of interaction, LT can interfere with Fbw7-driven cyclin E turnover in vivo and causes increased cyclin E-associated kinase activity. Our data suggest that LT competes with cellular proteins for Fbw7 binding in a substrate-like fashion.