Does suppressing luteinising hormone secretion reduce the miscarriage rate? Results of a randomised controlled trial

Laparoscopic treatment of polycystic ovaries: is it time to relinquish the procedure?

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the role of laparoscopic ovarian drilling and treatment with metformin in the management of the polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS).

DESIGN

A literature search was conducted using the keywords laparoscopy, laparoscopic ovarian drilling, laparoscopic ovarian diathermy, PCOS, metformin, and ovulation. The MEDLINE and EMBASE databases and the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews were searched.

RESULTS

No randomized comparisons have been done between laparoscopic ovarian drilling and metformin therapy. However, the ovulation and pregnancy rates appear to be similar for both techniques. Both treatments decrease the incidence of ovarian hyperstimulation and the cancellation rate of IVF cycles. However, unlike laparoscopic ovarian drilling, metformin may decrease the incidence of type 2 diabetes and coronary heart disease.

CONCLUSION(S)

Given the similar magnitude of the results without the potential risks and complication of surgery, we propose that laparoscopic ovarian drilling should be used sparingly in favor of less invasive treatment with metformin.

Obesity and the risk of spontaneous abortion after oocyte donation

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether obesity increases the risk of spontaneous abortion.

DESIGN

Retrospective study.

SETTING

Oocyte donation program at the Instituto Valenciano de Infertilidad in Spain.

PATIENT(S)

Seven hundred twelve cycles of recipients of ovum donation with known body mass index (BMI), good-quality embryo transfer, and absence of uterine pathology or clinical history of antiphospholipid antibodies or recurrent abortion.

INTERVENTION(S)

Recipients were divided in four BMI (kg/m(2)) groups: lean, with BMI <20 (n = 92; 12.9%); normal, with BMI = 20-24.9 (n = 398; 55.9%); overweight, with BMI = 25-29.9 (n = 172; 24.2%); and obese, with BMI >/=30 (n = 50; 7%). Clinical parameters were compared among the groups.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S)

Spontaneous abortion rates according to BMI.

RESULT(S)

No difference was found among the four BMI groups in any of the parameters of the cycle analyzed. The overall abortion rate was 15.8% (57 of 360). There were significant differences in abortion rates between the obese (38.1%), and the normal (13.3%) and overweight (15.5%) groups. When several cutoff BMI values were established (20, 25, and 30), only the obese women demonstrated a greater risk of abortion. Compared with the normal population, the obese group showed a significant fourfold increase in the risk of spontaneous abortion.

CONCLUSION(S)

Our findings confirm that obesity (BMI >/=30) is an independent risk factor for spontaneous abortion. Therefore, it would be advisable for obese patients to reduce weight before becoming pregnant.

Progestogen for preventing miscarriage

BACKGROUND

Progesterone, a female sex hormone, is known to induce secretory changes in the lining of the uterus essential for successful implantation of a fertilized egg. It has been suggested that a causative factor in many cases of miscarriage may be inadequate secretion of progestogens. Therefore, progestational agents have been used, beginning in the first trimester of pregnancy, in an attempt to prevent spontaneous miscarriage.

OBJECTIVES

To determine the efficacy and safety of progestogens as a preventative therapy against miscarriage.

SEARCH STRATEGY

We searched the Cochrane Pregnancy and Childbirth Group trials register (April 2003), CENTRAL, MEDLINE (1966 to April 2003), EMBASE (1980 to April 2003), CINAHL (1982 to April 2003), NHMRC Clinical Trials Register (April 2003) and Meta-Register (April 2003). We searched references from relevant articles, attempting to contact authors where necessary, and contacted experts in the field for unpublished works.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomised or quasi-randomised controlled trials comparing progestogens with placebo or no treatment given in an effort to prevent miscarriage.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Thirty trials were identified in the initial search. At least, two reviewers assessed trial quality and extracted data. Data for all outcomes were in dichotomous form and the Peto odds ratio was used in the meta-analysis for all comparisons.

MAIN RESULTS

Fourteen trials (1988 women) met the inclusion criteria. The meta-analysis of all women, regardless of gravidity and number of previous miscarriages, showed no statistically significant difference in the risk of miscarriage between progestogen and placebo or no treatment groups (odds ratio (OR) 1.05, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.83 to 1.34) and no statistically significant difference in the incidence of adverse effect in either mother or baby. In a subgroup analysis of three trials involving women who had recurrent miscarriages (three or more consecutive miscarriages), progestogen treatment showed a statistically significant decrease in miscarriage rate compared to placebo or no treatment (OR 0.39, 95% CI 0.17 to 0.91). No statistically significant differences were found between the route of administration of progestogen (oral, intramuscular, vaginal) versus placebo or no treatment.

REVIEWER'S CONCLUSIONS

There is no evidence to support the routine use of progestogen to prevent miscarriage in early to mid pregnancy. However, further trials in women with a history of recurrent miscarriage may be warranted, given the trend for improved live birth rates in these women and the finding of no statistically significant difference between treatment and control groups in rates of adverse effects suffered by either mother or baby in the available evidence.

Factors associated with pregnancy or miscarriage after clomiphene therapy in WHO group II anovulatory women

OBJECTIVES

The present study was designed to determine whether clinical and endocrine characteristics assessed on initial screening of normogonadotropic oligo/amenorrhoeic infertile patients could predict ovulation and then conception and successful live birth or miscarriage.

STUDY DESIGN

Retrospective cohort study

SETTING

Outpatient clinic.

POPULATION

Eighty-two consecutive women receiving clomiphene citrate (CC) therapy from 1993 to 1998.

RESULTS

A cumulative conception rate of 67% was reached after six or more CC-induced cycles. Patients with failure of ovulation after a full course of CC had more severe oligomenorrhoea (p < 0.001) and greater BMI (p < 0.05) at initial screening. There was no relationship with levels of LH or androgens. In contrast, among women who ovulated in response to CC, conception was associated with less frequent periods, and higher basal levels of LH, free testosterone and androstenedione. Conceptions with subsequent miscarriage were associated with intermediate levels of LH and numbers of spontaneous periods between non-conception and live births.

CONCLUSIONS

These observations are consistent with the hypothesis that failure of ovulation after CC is related to different factors (overweight and severe oligomenorrhoea) from those that predispose to non-conception (low basal LH and androgen levels and mild oligomenorrhoea).

High serum luteinizing hormone and testosterone concentrations do not predict pregnancy outcome in women with recurrent miscarriage

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the relationship between Day 8 serum luteinizing hormone (LH) and testosterone (T) concentrations, and body mass index (BMI) with pregnancy outcome in women with recurrent miscarriage.

DESIGN

Prospective observational study.

SETTING

National recurrent miscarriage clinic.

PATIENT(S)

Three hundred forty-four women (median age 32 years; range 18-44) with a history of recurrent first trimester miscarriage (median 4; 3-14; <12 weeks gestation) who conceived spontaneously and who received no pharmacological treatment during pregnancy were studied. All women were antiphospholipid antibody negative and had a normal peripheral karyotype as did their partners.

INTERVENTION(S)

Outcome of untreated pregnancies.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S)

Day 8 serum LH and T concentrations and BMI were correlated with pregnancy outcome.

RESULT(S)

One hundred and ninety-two (55.8%) women had a live birth and 152 (44.2%) women miscarried. Polycystic ovarian morphology was diagnosed in 174 women (50.6%). There was no significant relationship between follicular phase LH concentrations and pregnancy outcome. Pregnancy outcome was similar in women with normal and high serum T concentrations. BMI value was not significantly different between women who had a live birth and those who miscarried.

CONCLUSION(S)

The analysis of this large cohort of women with recurrent miscarriage demonstrates that prepregnancy Day 8 serum LH and T concentrations, and BMI do not have a statistically significant relationship with pregnancy outcome.

Patient scheduling for gonadotrophin-releasing hormone antagonist protocols

Gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) antagonists offer an alternative approach to the management of superovulation in assisted conception. Although several large multicentre randomized trials have provided information concerning the safety and efficacy of GnRH antagonists, their introduction into clinical practice has identified several new problems and opportunities. In vitro fertilization (IVF) practitioners with many years of experience of the 'long protocol' of pituitary downregulation with GnRH agonists have had to manage unfamiliar problems associated with patient scheduling and IVF cycle management when introducing GnRH antagonists into practice. Antagonist cycles require greater flexibility on the part of the IVF unit, with a need for 6 (or even 7) day working patterns and altered monitoring schedules. This article addresses the possibility of using oral contraceptives as part of GnRH antagonist cycle programming, and examines the definition of a 'good' cycle when using the antagonist.

Metformin therapy in the management of polycystic ovary syndrome: endocrine, metabolic and reproductive effects

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a convergence of multisystem endocrine derangements. Impairment in insulin metabolism is a prominent feature of the syndrome and appears to play a key pathogenetic role precipitating the cascade of other disorders associated with PCOS. Recent studies report that insulin-sensitizing agents, such as metformin, reduce hyperinsulinemia, reverse the endocrinopathy of PCOS and normalize endocrine, metabolic and reproductive functions, leading to the resumption of menstrual cyclicity and ovulation. In this review, we report the most recent evidence regarding metformin usage in women with PCOS.

Endocrinological and endometrial factors in recurrent miscarriage

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the endocrinological and endometrial factors in women with unexplained recurrent miscarriage

DESIGN

Prospective, case study

SETTING

Recurrent miscarriage clinic, Jessop Hospital for Women, Sheffield

PARTICIPANTS

One hundred and forty-four women with unexplained recurrent (> or =3) miscarriages

METHODS

A blood sample was obtained in early follicular phase (day 3-5) to measure follicle stimulating hormone, luteinising hormone, prolactin, androgens and thyroid function; daily blood/urine samples were obtained from mid-follicular phase to measure luteinising hormone until the luteinising hormone surge was identified; endometrial biopsy and a further blood sample for progesterone measurement were obtained in the mid-luteal phase. A transvaginal ultrasonography was performed to evaluate ovarian morphology.

RESULTS

Hypersecretion of luteinising hormone or ultrasonographic features of polycystic ovarian disease was present in 8% and 7.8% of women, respectively. The free androgen index was elevated in 14.6% of subjects. In the mid-luteal phase, low progesterone level was found in 17.4% and delayed endometrial development was noted in 27.1% of women. Although women with recurrent miscarriage women and delayed endometrium had significantly lower progesterone levels than those with normal endometrial development, only 8/24 had mid-luteal progesterone levels below 30 nmol/L. Recurrent miscarriage was not associated with hyperprolactinaemia or abnormal thyroid function test.

CONCLUSIONS

Endocrinological and endometrial abnormalities are present in about a quarter of women with unexplained recurrent miscarriage.

Epidemiology and the medical causes of miscarriage

Human reproduction is extraordinarily wasteful. The reasons for this have taxed all of the contributors to this book. As we move into the 21st century it is sobering to reflect on the fact that we have failed to harness the power of the evolving revolution in molecular medical biology to answer the fundamental question: why is the fate of a fertilized egg so hazardous and so unsuccessful? The following account summarizes our limited knowledge of the epidemiology of miscarriage and then moves on to consider some of the medical causes of miscarriage. The contribution of genetic abnormalities to the problem of pregnancy wastage is discussed elsewhere in this volume.

Contemporary issues for spontaneous abortion. Does recurrent abortion exist?

Most of the time, spontaneous abortion is a random event and represents the natural selection process. Although a recurrent factor may be present and may cause one or more abortions for a given couple, such instances are rare. Well-substantiated causes include parental chromosomal abnormalities (e.g., translocation), antiphospholipid syndrome, PCOD, and maternal age greater than 40 years. Müllerian duplication defects are most likely a cause of pregnancy loss for some women. A growing body of evidence refutes the role of corpus luteum defect as a common cause of recurrent abortion. Other causes are numerically infrequent in occurrence. It is likely that cigarette smoking and alcohol consumption contribute to pregnancy wastage. Although some therapies for the causes listed herein have been proven effective by randomized controlled trials, most have not. Given the excellent outcome demonstrated for most couples with unexplained recurrent abortion in the absence of treatment, it is difficult to recommend unproven therapies, especially if they are invasive and expensive. Instead of examining the environment in which pregnancy has occurred or been planned, clinicians have simply counted the number of spontaneous abortions among couples in an attempt to determine who should be evaluated. The former approach would seem most appropriate and proactive.

Polycystic ovaries and recurrent miscarriage--a reappraisal

The prevalence of polycystic ovaries (PCO) was established amongst 2199 consecutive women (median age 33 years; range 19-46) with a history of recurrent miscarriage (median 3; 3-14). A diagnosis of PCO was made if the ovarian volume was enlarged (>9 ml), there were >/=10 cysts of 2-8 mm in diameter in one plane and there was increased density of the stroma. In a cohort study, the prospective pregnancy outcome of 486 of the women scanned who were antiphospholipid antibody negative and who received no pharmacological treatment during their next pregnancy was studied. The prevalence of PCO was 40.7% (895/2199). The livebirth rate was similar amongst women with PCO (60.9%; 142/233) compared to that amongst women with normal ovarian morphology (58.5%; 148/253; not significant). Neither an elevated serum luteinizing hormone concentration (>10 IU/l) nor an elevated serum testosterone concentration (>3 nmol/l) was associated with an increased miscarriage rate. Polycystic ovarian morphology is not predictive of pregnancy loss amongst ovulatory women with recurrent miscarriage conceiving spontaneously. The search for a specific endocrine abnormality that can divide women with PCO into those with a good and those with a poorer prognosis for a future successful pregnancy continues.

Adverse effects of luteinizing hormone on fertility: fact or fantasy

High tonic serum concentrations of luteinizing hormone (LH) in the follicular phase, frequently witnessed in polycystic ovary syndrome, have been associated with decreased reproductive function. Impaired rates of fertilization, conception and miscarriage are obtained when LH levels are high before oocytes are collected, during ovulation induction or in women with regular cycles. Conversely, treatment that decreases LH concentrations, such as gonadotrophin-releasing hormone analogue or laparoscopic ovarian puncture, eases induction of ovulation and pregnancy and improves miscarriage rates. Tonic hypersecretion of LH appears to induce premature oocyte maturation, causing the problems with fertilization and miscarriage.

Use of luteinizing hormone releasing hormone agonists in polycystic ovary syndrome

Luteinizing hormone releasing hormone (LHRH) agonists have been used in conjunction with gonadotrophins, and occasionally with pulsatile LHRH, for ovulation induction in women with clomiphene-citrate-resistant polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) and also for superovulation for in vitro fertilization (IVF) and gamete intrafallopian transfer in women with PCOS. In IVF, LHRH agonists given by the 'long protocol' before gonadotrophins are commenced have consistently shown higher pregnancy rates and higher live birth rates. Although the optimal time to commence LHRH agonist is not clearly determined, commencement in the early follicular phase possibly with pre-treatment with the combined oral contraceptive pill would avoid the risk of inadvertent administration during early pregnancy. The role of LHRH agonists in ovulation induction is less clear cut, although there may be some advantages in patients with refractory PCOS. The role of LHRH agonists in ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome and recurrent miscarriage is also discussed.

Serum androgen levels in women who have recurrent miscarriages and their correlation with markers of endometrial function

OBJECTIVE

To compare plasma androgen concentrations in women who have recurrent miscarriages and in fertile women, and to correlate the results with concentrations of the endometrial protein PP14 in uterine flushings and plasma from women who have recurrent miscarriages.

DESIGN

Retrospective study.

SETTING

Hospital research unit.

PATIENT(S)

Women attending a recurrent miscarriage clinic and normal fertile volunteers. Ten of the women with recurrent miscarriages had polycystic ovary disease (PCOD) as assessed by ultrasonography or increased follicular LH levels.

INTERVENTION(S)

Plasma samples were obtained from the women on days LH-7, LH-4, LH+0, and LH+7 or LH+10 of a cycle. An endometrial flushing sample and a biopsy specimen were taken from women with recurrent miscarriages on day LH+7 or LH+10.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S)

Androstenedione, testosterone, and sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) were measured in the plasma samples. The endometrial protein PP14 was measured in the uterine flushings and in the LH+7 or LH+10 plasma samples from the women with recurrent miscarriages.

RESULT(S)

Testosterone concentrations were higher in the women with recurrent miscarriages both with and without PCOD on days LH-7 and LH-4 of the cycle. Concentrations of androstenedione also were higher in the women with recurrent miscarriages, but without PCOD on day LH-7. Testosterone SHBG ratios were higher in the women with recurrent miscarriages, without PCOD compared with the controls on days LH-7, LH+0, and LH+7. Mean follicular testosterone concentrations were correlated negatively with both uterine (r = -0.47) and plasma (r = -0.49) PP14 levels on day LH+10. Mean luteal phase testosterone SHBG ratios were correlated negatively with uterine PP14 concentrations on day LH+7 of the cycle (r = -0.674).

CONCLUSION(S)

Androgen levels are higher in women who have recurrent miscarriages than in normal fertile controls. These high levels of androgens may have a detrimental effect on endometrial function.