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The cytoskeleton in cell-autonomous immunity: structural determinants of host defence. Nat Rev Immunol 2015; 15:559-73. [PMID: 26292640 DOI: 10.1038/nri3877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Host cells use antimicrobial proteins, pathogen-restrictive compartmentalization and cell death in their defence against intracellular pathogens. Recent work has revealed that four components of the cytoskeleton--actin, microtubules, intermediate filaments and septins, which are well known for their roles in cell division, shape and movement--have important functions in innate immunity and cellular self-defence. Investigations using cellular and animal models have shown that these cytoskeletal proteins are crucial for sensing bacteria and for mobilizing effector mechanisms to eliminate them. In this Review, we highlight the emerging roles of the cytoskeleton as a structural determinant of cell-autonomous host defence.
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Abstract
Significant progress in our understanding of Crohn's disease (CD), an archetypal common, complex disease, has now been achieved. Our ability to interrogate the deep complexities of the biological processes involved in maintaining gut mucosal homeostasis is a major over-riding factor underpinning this rapid progress. Key studies now offer many novel and expansive insights into the interacting roles of genetic susceptibility, immune function, and the gut microbiota in CD. Here, we provide overviews of these recent advances and new mechanistic themes, and address the challenges and prospects for translation from concept to clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ray Boyapati
- Centre for Inflammation Research, Queens Medical Research Institute, University of EdinburghEdinburgh, EH16 4TJUK
- Gastrointestinal Unit, Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, Western General HospitalEdinburgh, EH4 2XUUK
| | - Jack Satsangi
- Centre for Inflammation Research, Queens Medical Research Institute, University of EdinburghEdinburgh, EH16 4TJUK
- Gastrointestinal Unit, Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, Western General HospitalEdinburgh, EH4 2XUUK
| | - Gwo-Tzer Ho
- Centre for Inflammation Research, Queens Medical Research Institute, University of EdinburghEdinburgh, EH16 4TJUK
- Gastrointestinal Unit, Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, Western General HospitalEdinburgh, EH4 2XUUK
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Vimentin regulates activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome. Nat Commun 2015; 6:6574. [PMID: 25762200 PMCID: PMC4358756 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms7574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 189] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2014] [Accepted: 02/09/2015] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome and subsequent maturation of IL-1β have been implicated in acute lung injury (ALI), resulting in inflammation and fibrosis. We investigated the role of vimentin, a type III intermediate filament, in this process using three well-characterized murine models of ALI known to require NLRP3 inflammasome activation. We demonstrate that central pathophysiologic events in ALI (inflammation, IL-1β levels, endothelial and alveolar epithelial barrier permeability, remodelling and fibrosis) are attenuated in the lungs of Vim(-/-) mice challenged with LPS, bleomycin and asbestos. Bone marrow chimeric mice lacking vimentin have reduced IL-1β levels and attenuated lung injury and fibrosis following bleomycin exposure. Furthermore, decreased active caspase-1 and IL-1β levels are observed in vitro in Vim(-/-) and vimentin-knockdown macrophages. Importantly, we show direct protein-protein interaction between NLRP3 and vimentin. This study provides insights into lung inflammation and fibrosis and suggests that vimentin may be a key regulator of the NLRP3 inflammasome.
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Martinez-Medina M, Garcia-Gil LJ. Escherichia coli in chronic inflammatory bowel diseases: An update on adherent invasive Escherichia coli pathogenicity. World J Gastrointest Pathophysiol 2014; 5:213-227. [PMID: 25133024 PMCID: PMC4133521 DOI: 10.4291/wjgp.v5.i3.213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2014] [Revised: 04/08/2014] [Accepted: 05/29/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Escherichia coli (E. coli), and particularly the adherent invasive E. coli (AIEC) pathotype, has been increasingly implicated in the ethiopathogenesis of Crohn’s disease (CD). E. coli strains with similar pathogenic features to AIEC have been associated with other intestinal disorders such as ulcerative colitis, colorectal cancer, and coeliac disease, but AIEC prevalence in these diseases remains largely unexplored. Since AIEC was described one decade ago, substantial progress has been made in deciphering its mechanisms of pathogenicity. However, the molecular bases that characterize the phenotypic properties of this pathotype are still not well resolved. A review of studies focused on E. coli populations in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is presented here and we discuss about the putative role of this species on each IBD subtype. Given the relevance of AIEC in CD pathogenesis, we present the latest research findings concerning AIEC host-microbe interactions and pathogenicity. We also review the existing data regarding the prevalence and abundance of AIEC in CD and its association with other intestinal diseases from humans and animals, in order to discuss the AIEC disease- and host-specificity. Finally, we highlight the fact that dietary components frequently found in industrialized countries may enhance AIEC colonization in the gut, which merits further investigation and the implementation of preventative measures.
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Abstract
IBD is a spectrum of chronic disorders that constitute an important health problem worldwide. The hunt for genetic determinants of disease onset and course has culminated in the Immunochip project, which has identified >160 loci containing IBD susceptibility genes. In this Review, we highlight how genetic association studies have informed our understanding of the pathogenesis of IBD by focusing research efforts on key pathways involved in innate immunity, autophagy, lymphocyte differentiation and chemotaxis. Several of these novel genetic markers and cellular pathways are promising candidates for patient stratification and therapeutic targeting.
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Jakopin Ž. Nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain (NOD) inhibitors: a rational approach toward inhibition of NOD signaling pathway. J Med Chem 2014; 57:6897-918. [PMID: 24707857 DOI: 10.1021/jm401841p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Dysregulation of nucleotide-binding oligomerization domains 1 and 2 (NOD1 and NOD2) has been implicated in the pathology of various inflammatory disorders, rendering them and their downstream signaling proteins potential therapeutic targets. Selective inhibition of NOD1 and NOD2 signaling could be advantageous in treating many acute and chronic diseases; therefore, harnessing the full potential of NOD inhibitors is a key topic in medicinal chemistry. Although they are among the best studied NOD-like receptors (NLRs), the therapeutic potential of pharmacological modulation of NOD1 and NOD2 is largely unexplored. This review is focused on the scientific progress in the field of NOD inhibitors over the past decade, including the recently reported selective inhibitors of NOD1 and NOD2. In addition, the potential approaches to inhibition of NOD signaling as well as the advantages and disadvantages linked with inhibition of NOD signaling are discussed. Finally, the potential directions for drug discovery are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Žiga Jakopin
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana , Aškerčeva 7, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
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Philpott DJ, Sorbara MT, Robertson SJ, Croitoru K, Girardin SE. NOD proteins: regulators of inflammation in health and disease. Nat Rev Immunol 2013; 14:9-23. [PMID: 24336102 DOI: 10.1038/nri3565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 456] [Impact Index Per Article: 41.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Entry of bacteria into host cells is an important virulence mechanism. Through peptidoglycan recognition, the nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain (NOD) proteins NOD1 and NOD2 enable detection of intracellular bacteria and promote their clearance through initiation of a pro-inflammatory transcriptional programme and other host defence pathways, including autophagy. Recent findings have expanded the scope of the cellular compartments monitored by NOD1 and NOD2 and have elucidated the signalling pathways that are triggered downstream of NOD activation. In vivo, NOD1 and NOD2 have complex roles, both during bacterial infection and at homeostasis. The association of alleles that encode constitutively active or constitutively inactive forms of NOD2 with different diseases highlights this complexity and indicates that a balanced level of NOD signalling is crucial for the maintenance of immune homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dana J Philpott
- 1] Department of Immunology, University of Toronto, Toronto M5S 1A8, Canada. [2]
| | - Matthew T Sorbara
- 1] Department of Immunology, University of Toronto, Toronto M5S 1A8, Canada. [2]
| | | | - Kenneth Croitoru
- Institute of Medical Science, Department of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto M5S 1A8, Canada
| | - Stephen E Girardin
- 1] Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto M5S 1A8, Canada. [2]
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Hugwil AV. The meaning of the anti-cancer antibody CLN-IgG (Pritumumab) generated by human × human hybridoma technology against the cyto-skeletal protein, vimentin, in the course of the treatment of malignancy. Med Hypotheses 2013; 81:489-95. [PMID: 23856243 DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2013.05.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2013] [Accepted: 05/26/2013] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Cancer stem cells in a tumor mass form a very small subpopulation ranging from below 0.1% in a brain tumor but they have the crucial ability to become malignant. The goal of cancer therapy has been the total killing of tumor cells. However we should clarify that most of all tumor cells are differentiated cancer cells. Thus the elimination of 99.9% of tumor cells under histological criteria cannot ensure the cancer will be cured. Rather cancer cell biologists should turn their attention to reprogramming cancer stem cells to normal stem cells by which malignancy recuperates normal organogenesis from the aspect of the dichotomy of cancer stem cell. The cue points underlying the reverse cancer stem cell at blastogenesis in inflammation site is depending upon cell-to-cell recognition of the tumor-niche cells. Normalization of tumor-niche promises to lead cancer stem cell into normal stem cell owing to autonomous healing mechanisms that reside in the self-defense mechanisms in immunity and the cell competition mechanisms in the wound healing of the tissue cells. Among the cyto-skeletal proteins, vimentin becomes a target of self-restoration of cancer stem cell by means of immune surveillance. A human monoclonal antibody, CLN-IgG recognizes vimentin expressing on the cell surface of the malignant tumor. Since vimentin network resides in the cytoplasm connecting the plasma membrane with chromatin assembly in the nucleus, it is highly likely vimentin plays an important role in up-regulation and down-regulation through signal transduction between certain membrane receptors and gene expression with respect to the transformation of the cell. Aberrant arrangement of vimentin undergoes malignancy accompanied by epithelial-mesenchymal-transition relating to the aberrant apoptotic cellular behavior in the tumor-niche. Restraint of the aberrant expression of vimentin on the plasma membrane of the malignant cell evokes a pertinent signal transduction pathway for healing that is an indication there must be a reverse path that reprograms cancer stem cells to normal organogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Albert V Hugwil
- HIHIMSA Foundation, 603 Seagaze Dr. Unit 949, Oceanside, CA 92054, USA.
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Bargagna-Mohan P, Deokule SP, Thompson K, Wizeman J, Srinivasan C, Vooturi S, Kompella UB, Mohan R. Withaferin A effectively targets soluble vimentin in the glaucoma filtration surgical model of fibrosis. PLoS One 2013; 8:e63881. [PMID: 23667686 PMCID: PMC3648549 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0063881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2012] [Accepted: 04/09/2013] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Withaferin A (WFA) is a natural product that binds to soluble forms of the type III intermediate filament (IF) vimentin. Currently, it is unknown under what pathophysiological contexts vimentin is druggable, as cytoskeltal vimentin-IFs are abundantly expressed. To investigate druggability of vimentin, we exploited rabbit Tenon's capsule fibroblast (RbTCF) cell cultures and the rabbit glaucoma filtration surgical (GFS) model of fibrosis. WFA potently caused G₀/G₁ cell cycle inhibition (IC₅₀ 25 nM) in RbTCFs, downregulating ubiquitin E3 ligase skp2 and inducing p27(Kip1) expression. Transforming growth factor (TGF)-ß-induced myofibroblast transformation caused development of cell spheroids with numerous elongated invadopodia, which WFA blocked potently by downregulating soluble vimentin and α-smooth muscle actin (SMA) expression. In the pilot proof-of-concept study using the GFS model, subconjunctival injections of a low WFA dose reduced skp2 expression in Tenon's capsule and increased p27(Kip1) expression without significant alteration to vimentin-IFs. This treatment maintains significant nanomolar WFA concentrations in anterior segment tissues that correspond to WFA's cell cycle targeting activity. A ten-fold higher WFA dose caused potent downregulation of soluble vimentin and skp2 expression, but as found in cell cultures, no further increase in p27(Kip1) expression was observed. Instead, this high WFA dose potently induced vimentin-IF disruption and downregulated α-SMA expression that mimicked WFA activity in TGF-ß-treated RbTCFs that blocked cell contractile activity at submicromolar concentrations. These findings illuminate that localized WFA injection to ocular tissues exerts pharmacological control over the skp2-p27(Kip1) pathway by targeting of soluble vimentin in a model of surgical fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paola Bargagna-Mohan
- Neuroscience, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Sunil P. Deokule
- Ophthalmology and Visual Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
| | - Kyle Thompson
- Ophthalmology and Visual Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
| | - John Wizeman
- Neuroscience, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Cidambi Srinivasan
- Statistics, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
| | - Sunil Vooturi
- Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Uday B. Kompella
- Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Royce Mohan
- Neuroscience, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut, United States of America
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Moreira LO, Zamboni DS. NOD1 and NOD2 Signaling in Infection and Inflammation. Front Immunol 2012; 3:328. [PMID: 23162548 PMCID: PMC3492658 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2012.00328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 190] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2012] [Accepted: 10/17/2012] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Sensing intracellular pathogens is a process mediated by innate immune cells that is crucial for the induction of inflammatory processes and effective adaptive immune responses against pathogenic microbes. NOD-like receptors (NLRs) comprise a family of intracellular pattern recognition receptors that are important for the recognition of damage and microbial-associated molecular patterns. NOD1 and NOD2 are specialized NLRs that participate in the recognition of a subset of pathogenic microorganisms that are able to invade and multiply intracellularly. Once activated, these molecules trigger intracellular signaling pathways that lead to the activation of transcriptional responses culminating in the expression of a subset of inflammatory genes. In this review, we will focus on the role of NOD1 and NOD2 in the recognition and response to intracellular pathogens, including Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, and on their ability to signal in response to non-peptidoglycan-containing pathogens, such as viruses and protozoan parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lilian O Moreira
- Faculdade de Farmácia, Departamento de Análises Clínicas e Toxicológicas, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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Henderson P, Stevens C. The role of autophagy in Crohn's disease. Cells 2012; 1:492-519. [PMID: 24710487 PMCID: PMC3901108 DOI: 10.3390/cells1030492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2012] [Revised: 07/20/2012] [Accepted: 07/23/2012] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
(Macro)-autophagy is a homeostatic process by which eukaryotic cells dispose of protein aggregates and damaged organelles. Autophagy is also used to degrade micro-organisms that invade intracellularly in a process termed xenophagy. Genome-wide association scans have recently identified autophagy genes as conferring susceptibility to Crohn’s disease (CD), one of the chronic inflammatory bowel diseases, with evidence suggesting that CD arises from a defective innate immune response to enteric bacteria. Here we review the emerging role of autophagy in CD, with particular focus on xenophagy and enteric E. coli strains with an adherent and invasive phenotype that have been consistently isolated from CD patients with ileal disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Henderson
- Department of Child Life and Health, 20 Sylvan Place, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 1UW, UK.
| | - Craig Stevens
- Gastrointestinal Unit, Institute for Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Western General Hospital, Crewe Road, Edinburgh EH4 2XU, UK.
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