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Sardão VA, Pereira SL, Oliveira PJ. Drug-induced mitochondrial dysfunction in cardiac and skeletal muscle injury. Expert Opin Drug Saf 2008; 7:129-46. [PMID: 18324876 DOI: 10.1517/14740338.7.2.129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The list of clinically relevant molecules that affect skeletal and cardiac muscle mitochondria is gradually increasing, which strongly suggest that mitochondrial toxicity should be an important end point during the design and testing of novel pharmaceuticals. OBJECTIVE The present review intends to describe mechanisms by which clinically relevant drugs are known to alter mitochondrial function in cardiac and skeletal muscle, which is suggested to be involved in the toxicity associated with those drugs. METHODS Literature databases were searched in order to identify clinically relevant drugs with associated mitochondrial muscle toxicity. CONCLUSION Mitochondrial function is important in the context of muscle survival, hence, the requirement to identify novel mitochondrial targets and develop new therapies to counteract chemical-induced degeneration of mitochondrial function and muscle performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vilma A Sardão
- University of Coimbra, Center for Neurosciences and Cell Biology, Department of Zoology, 3004-517 Coimbra, Portugal
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McAllister SE, Ashrafpour H, Cahoon N, Huang N, Moses MA, Neligan PC, Forrest CR, Lipa JE, Pang CY. Postconditioning for salvage of ischemic skeletal muscle from reperfusion injury: efficacy and mechanism. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2008; 295:R681-9. [PMID: 18509099 DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.90303.2008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
We tested our hypothesis that postischemic conditioning (PostC) is effective in salvage of ischemic skeletal muscle from reperfusion injury and the mechanism involves inhibition of opening of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mPTP). In bilateral 8x13 cm pig latissimus dorsi muscle flaps subjected to 4 h ischemia, muscle infarction increased from 22+/-4 to 41+/-1% between 2 and 24 h reperfusion and remained unchanged at 48 (38+/-6%) and 72 (40+/-1%) h reperfusion (P<0.05; n=4 pigs). PostC induced by four cycles of 30-s reperfusion/reocclusion at the onset of reperfusion after 4 h ischemia reduced muscle infarction from 44+/-2 to 22+/-2% at 48 h reperfusion. This infarct protective effect of PostC was mimicked by intravenous injection of the mPTP opening inhibitor cyclosporin A or NIM-811 (10 mg/kg) at 5 min before the end of 4 h ischemia and was abolished by intravenous injection of the mPTP opener atractyloside (10 mg/kg) at 5 min before PostC (P<0.05; n=4-5 pigs). PostC or intravenous cyclosporin A injection at 5 min before reperfusion caused a decrease in muscle myeloperoxidase activity and mitochondrial free Ca2+ concentration and an increase in muscle ATP content after 4 h ischemia and 2 h reperfusion compared with the time-matched controls. These effects of PostC were abolished by intravenous injection of atractyloside at 5 min before PostC (P<0.05; n=6 pigs). These observations support our hypothesis that PostC is effective in salvage of ischemic skeletal muscle from reperfusion injury and the mechanism involves inhibition of opening of the mPTP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra E McAllister
- Research Institute, The Hospital for Sick Children and Department of Surgery, University of Toronto, 555 University Ave., Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5G 1X8
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An old dream revitalised: preconditioning strategies to protect surgical flaps from critical ischaemia and ischaemia-reperfusion injury. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg 2008; 61:503-11. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bjps.2007.11.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2006] [Revised: 04/11/2007] [Accepted: 11/22/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Remote ischemic preconditioning: a novel protective method from ischemia reperfusion injury--a review. J Surg Res 2008; 150:304-30. [PMID: 19040966 DOI: 10.1016/j.jss.2007.12.747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 264] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2007] [Revised: 10/25/2007] [Accepted: 12/06/2007] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Restoration of blood supply to an organ after a critical period of ischemia results in parenchymal injury and dysfunction of the organ referred to as reperfusion injury. Ischemia reperfusion injury is often seen in organ transplants, major organ resections and in shock. Ischemic preconditioning (IPC) is an adaptational response of briefly ischemic tissues which serves to protect against subsequent prolonged ischemic insults and reperfusion injury. Ischemic preconditioning can be mechanical or pharmacological. Direct mechanical preconditioning in which the target organ is exposed to brief ischemia prior to prolonged ischemia has the benefit of reducing ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) but its main disadvantage is trauma to major vessels and stress to the target organ. Remote (inter organ) preconditioning is a recent observation in which brief ischemia of one organ has been shown to confer protection on distant organs without direct stress to the organ. AIM To discuss the evidence for remote IPC (RIPC), underlying mechanisms and possible clinical applications of RIPC. METHODS OF SEARCH: A Pubmed search with the keywords "ischemic preconditioning," "remote preconditioning," "remote ischemic preconditioning," and "ischemia reperfusion" was done. All articles on remote preconditioning up to September 2006 have been reviewed. Relevant reference articles from within these have been selected for further discussion. RESULTS Experimental studies have demonstrated that the heart, liver, lung, intestine, brain, kidney and limbs are capable of producing remote preconditioning when subjected to brief IR. Remote intra-organ preconditioning was first described in the heart where brief ischemia in one territory led to protection in other areas. Translation of RIPC to clinical application has been demonstrated by the use of brief forearm ischemia in preconditioning the heart prior to coronary bypass and in reducing endothelial dysfunction of the contra lateral limb. Recently protection of the heart has been demonstrated by remote hind limb preconditioning in children who underwent surgery on cardiopulmonary bypass for congenital heart disease. The RIPC stimulus presumably induces release of biochemical messengers which act either by the bloodstream or by the neurogenic pathway resulting in reduced oxidative stress and preservation of mitochondrial function. Studies have demonstrated endothelial NO, Free radicals, Kinases, Opioids, Catecholamines and K(ATP) channels as the candidate mechanism in remote preconditioning. Experiments have shown suppression of proinflammatory genes, expression of antioxidant genes and modulation of gene expression by RIPC as a novel method of IRI injury prevention. CONCLUSION There is strong evidence to support RIPC. The underlying mechanisms and pathways need further clarification. The effective use of RIPC needs to be investigated in clinical settings.
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Kanoria S, Jalan R, Seifalian AM, Williams R, Davidson BR. Protocols and Mechanisms for Remote Ischemic Preconditioning: A Novel Method for Reducing Ischemia Reperfusion Injury. Transplantation 2007; 84:445-58. [PMID: 17713425 DOI: 10.1097/01.tp.0000228235.55419.e8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Ischemia reperfusion injury (IRI) results in damage to local and remote organs. Remote ischemic preconditioning (RIPC) is a strategy to protect against IRI by inducing a prior brief period(s) of IRI to an organ remote from that undergoing sustained injury. RIPC has been shown to protect organs against IRI; however, the protocols and mechanisms for RIPC are unclear. For this review, a Medline/Pubmed search (January 1985 to January 2007) was conducted and all relevant articles were included. RIPC protocols are organ and species specific and both humoral and neurogenic pathways are involved in triggering intracellular signal pathways for protection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanjeev Kanoria
- HPB and Liver Transplant Unit, University Department of Surgery, Royal Free Hospital, London, United Kingdom.
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Pompermayer K, Amaral FA, Fagundes CT, Vieira AT, Cunha FQ, Teixeira MM, Souza DG. Effects of the treatment with glibenclamide, an ATP-sensitive potassium channel blocker, on intestinal ischemia and reperfusion injury. Eur J Pharmacol 2007; 556:215-22. [PMID: 17182029 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2006.10.065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2006] [Revised: 10/19/2006] [Accepted: 10/30/2006] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Intestinal ischemia and reperfusion injury is dependent on the recruitment and activation of neutrophils. Glibenclamide, an ATP-sensitive potassium channel (K(ATP)) blocker, has been shown to suppress neutrophil migration and chemotaxis during acute inflammatory responses by a mechanism dependent on its K(ATP) channel blocking activity. In the present study, we evaluated whether the treatment with glibenclamide prevented local, remote and systemic injury following reperfusion of the ischemic superior mesenteric artery in rats. The artery was made ischemic for a period of 30 or 120 min followed by 30 (mild I/R) or 120 (severe I/R) min of reperfusion, respectively. Glibenclamide (0.8 to 20 mg/kg) or vehicle was administered subcutaneously 40 min prior to the reperfusion. Glibenclamide dose-dependently inhibited the reperfusion-associated increase in vascular permeability and neutrophil accumulation in mild I/R. In the severe injury model, glibenclamide inhibited inflammatory parameters, as assessed by Evans blue extravasation, neutrophil influx and haemoglobin content, and the increase in TNF-alpha (tumor necrose factor-alpha) and IL (interleukin)-6 levels in the intestine and lung. The drug did not affect the increase in IL-1beta and IL-10 levels. TEA, a nonselective potassium channel blocker, also inhibited reperfusion injury in both intestine and lungs of animals submitted to mild and severe I/R. Our experiments suggest a role for K(ATP) channels in mediating neutrophil influx and consequent reperfusion-associated injury in rats. The lack of effect of these drugs on the reperfusion-associated hypotension and lethality may limit their usefulness after severe reperfusion injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenia Pompermayer
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil
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Schmidt MR, Smerup M, Konstantinov IE, Shimizu M, Li J, Cheung M, White PA, Kristiansen SB, Sorensen K, Dzavik V, Redington AN, Kharbanda RK. Intermittent peripheral tissue ischemia during coronary ischemia reduces myocardial infarction through a KATP-dependent mechanism: first demonstration of remote ischemic perconditioning. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2006; 292:H1883-90. [PMID: 17172279 DOI: 10.1152/ajpheart.00617.2006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 202] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Remote ischemic preconditioning reduces myocardial infarction (MI) in animal models. We tested the hypothesis that the systemic protection thus induced is effective when ischemic preconditioning is administered during ischemia (PerC) and before reperfusion and examined the role of the K(+)-dependent ATP (K(ATP)) channel. Twenty 20-kg pigs were randomized (10 in each group) to 40 min of left anterior descending coronary artery occlusion with 120 min of reperfusion. PerC consisted of four 5-min cycles of lower limb ischemia by tourniquet during left anterior descending coronary artery occlusion. Left ventricular (LV) function was assessed by a conductance catheter and extent of infarction by tetrazolium staining. The extent of MI was significantly reduced by PerC (60.4 +/- 14.3 vs. 38.3 +/- 15.4%, P = 0.004) and associated with improved functional indexes. The increase in the time constant of diastolic relaxation was significantly attenuated by PerC compared with control in ischemia and reperfusion (P = 0.01 and 0.04, respectively). At 120 min of reperfusion, preload-recruitable stroke work declined 38 +/- 6% and 3 +/- 5% in control and PerC, respectively (P = 0.001). The force-frequency relation was significantly depressed at 120 min of reperfusion in both groups, but optimal heart rate was significantly lower in the control group (P = 0.04). There were fewer malignant arrhythmias with PerC during reperfusion (P = 0.02). These protective effects of PerC were abolished by glibenclamide. Intermittent limb ischemia during myocardial ischemia reduces MI, preserves global systolic and diastolic function, and protects against arrhythmia during the reperfusion phase through a K(ATP) channel-dependent mechanism. Understanding this process may have important therapeutic implications for a range of ischemia-reperfusion syndromes.
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Martou G, O'Blenes CA, Huang N, McAllister SE, Neligan PC, Ashrafpour H, Pang CY, Lipa JE. Development of an in vitro model for study of the efficacy of ischemic preconditioning in human skeletal muscle against ischemia-reperfusion injury. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2006; 101:1335-42. [PMID: 17043328 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00278.2006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury causes skeletal muscle infarction and ischemic preconditioning (IPC) augments ischemic tolerance in animal models. To date, this has not been demonstrated in human skeletal muscle. This study aimed to develop an in vitro model to investigate the efficacy of simulated IPC in human skeletal muscle. Human skeletal muscle strips were equilibrated in oxygenated Krebs-Henseleit-HEPES buffer (37 degrees C). Aerobic and reperfusion phases were simulated by normoxic incubation and reoxygenation, respectively. Ischemia was simulated by hypoxic incubation. Energy store, cell viability, and cellular injury were assessed using ATP, 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide (MTT), and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) assays, respectively. Morphological integrity was assessed using electron microscopy. Studies were designed to test stability of the preparation (n = 5-11) under normoxic incubation over 24 h; the effect of 1, 2, 3, 4, or 6 h hypoxia followed by 2 h of reoxygenation; and the protective effect of hypoxic preconditioning (HPC; 5 min of hypoxia/5 min of reoxygenation) before 3 h of hypoxia/2 h of reoxygenation. Over 24 h of normoxic incubation, muscle strips remained physiologically intact as assessed by MTT, ATP, and LDH assays. After 3 h of hypoxia/2 h of reoxygenation, MTT reduction levels declined to 50.1 +/- 5.5% (P < 0.05). MTT reduction levels in HPC (82.3 +/- 10.8%) and normoxic control (81.3 +/- 10.2%) groups were similar and higher (P < 0.05) than the 3 h of hypoxia/2 h of reoxygenation group (45.2 +/- 5.8%). Ultrastructural morphology was preserved in normoxic and HPC groups but not in the hypoxia/reoxygenation group. This is the first study to characterize a stable in vitro model of human skeletal muscle and to demonstrate a protective effect of HPC in human skeletal muscle against hypoxia/reoxygenation-induced injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Glyka Martou
- Division of Plastic Surgery, Department of Surgery, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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Szewczyk A, Skalska J, Głab M, Kulawiak B, Malińska D, Koszela-Piotrowska I, Kunz WS. Mitochondrial potassium channels: from pharmacology to function. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOENERGETICS 2006; 1757:715-20. [PMID: 16787636 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbabio.2006.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2005] [Revised: 04/19/2006] [Accepted: 05/02/2006] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Mitochondrial potassium channels, such as ATP-regulated or large conductance Ca2+ -activated and voltage gated channels were implicated in cytoprotective phenomenon in different tissues. Basic effects of these channels activity include changes in mitochondrial matrix volume, mitochondrial respiration and membrane potential, and generation of reactive oxygen species. In this paper, we describe the pharmacological properties of mitochondrial potassium channels and their modulation by channel inhibitors and potassium channel openers. We also discuss potential side effects of these substances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam Szewczyk
- Laboratory of Intracellular Ion Channels, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, 3 Pasteur st., 02-093 Warsaw, Poland.
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Dudley RWR, Khairallah M, Mohammed S, Lands L, Des Rosiers C, Petrof BJ. Dynamic responses of the glutathione system to acute oxidative stress in dystrophic mouse (mdx) muscles. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2006; 291:R704-10. [PMID: 16614063 DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00031.2006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The precise mechanisms underlying skeletal muscle damage in Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) remain ill-defined. Functional ischemia during muscle activation, with subsequent reperfusion during rest, has been documented. Therefore, one possibility is the presence of increased oxidative stress. We applied a model of acute hindlimb ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) in mdx mice (genetic homolog of DMD) to evaluate dynamic in vivo responses of dystrophic muscles to this form of oxidative stress. Before the application of I/R, mdx muscles showed: 1) decreased levels of total glutathione (GSH) with an increased oxidized (GSSG)-to-reduced (GSH) glutathione ratio; 2) greater activity of the GSH-metabolizing enzymes glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and glutathione reductase; and 3) lower activity levels of NADP-linked isocitrate dehydrogenase (ICDH) and aconitase, two metabolic enzymes that are sensitive to inactivation by oxidative stress and also implicated in GSH regeneration. Interestingly, nondystrophic muscles subjected to I/R exhibited similar changes in total glutathione, GSSG/GSH, GPx, ICDH, and aconitase. In contrast, all of the above remained stable in mdx muscles subjected to I/R. Taken together, these results suggest that mdx muscles are chronically subjected to increased oxidative stress, leading to adaptive changes that attempt to protect (although only in part) the dystrophic muscles from acute I/R-induced oxidative stress. In addition, mdx muscles show significant impairment of the redox-sensitive metabolic enzymes ICDH and aconitase, which may further contribute to contractile dysfunction in dystrophic muscles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roy W R Dudley
- Meakins-Christie Laboratories, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
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Jin RL, Li WB, Li QJ, Zhang M, Xian XH, Sun XC, Zhao HG, Qi J. The role of extracellular signal-regulated kinases in the neuroprotection of limb ischemic preconditioning. Neurosci Res 2006; 55:65-73. [PMID: 16530867 DOI: 10.1016/j.neures.2006.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2005] [Revised: 01/19/2006] [Accepted: 01/31/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
To clarify the role of phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinases (pERK1/2) in the neuroprotection of limb ischemic preconditioning (LIP) in rats, we investigated the expression of pERK1/2 using Western blot and flow cytometry in the hippocampus after LIP and the effect of pERK1/2 inhibitor PD 98059 on the neuroprotection of LIP against delayed neuronal death (DND) in the CA1 hippocampus normally induced by severe ischemic insult. It demonstrated that pERK1/2 in the hippocampus increased after LIP. In the CA1 hippocampus, ERK1/2 activation began to increase at 6h and reached peak at 12h after LIP, and decreased to sham level at 5d after LIP. On the other hand, in the CA3/DG, pERK1/2 enhanced at 1d, reached peak at 3d, and lasted to 5d after LIP. Pretreatment with PD 98059 before LIP blocked the neuroprotection of LIP in a dose-dependent manner. These findings supported that the upregulation of pERK1/2 in the CA1 hippocampus contributed to the neuroprotection of LIP against DND normally caused by the brain ischemic insult.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui-Li Jin
- Department of Pathophysiology, Institute of Basic Medicine, Hebei Medical University, 361 Zhongshan East Road, Shijiazhuang 050017, PR China
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Moses MA, Addison PD, Neligan PC, Ashrafpour H, Huang N, McAllister SE, Lipa JE, Forrest CR, Pang CY. Inducing late phase of infarct protection in skeletal muscle by remote preconditioning: efficacy and mechanism. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2005; 289:R1609-17. [PMID: 16179491 DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00395.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
We have previously demonstrated that remote ischemic preconditioning (IPC) by instigation of three cycles of 10-min occlusion/reperfusion in a hindlimb of the pig elicits an early phase of infarct protection in local and distant skeletal muscles subjected to 4 h of ischemia immediately after remote IPC. The aim of this project was to test our hypothesis that hindlimb remote IPC also induces a late phase of infarct protection in skeletal muscle and that KATP channels play a pivotal role in the trigger and mediator mechanisms. We observed that pig bilateral latissimus dorsi (LD) muscle flaps sustained 46 ± 2% infarction when subjected to 4 h of ischemia/48 h of reperfusion. The late phase of infarct protection appeared at 24 h and lasted up to 72 h after hindlimb remote IPC. The LD muscle infarction was reduced to 28 ± 3, 26 ± 1, 23 ± 2, 24 ± 2 and 24 ± 4% at 24, 28, 36, 48 and 72 h after remote IPC, respectively ( P < 0.05; n = 8). In subsequent studies, hindlimb remote IPC or intravenous injection of the sarcolemmal KATP (sKATP) channel opener P-1075 (2 μg/kg) at 24 h before 4 h of sustained ischemia (i.e., late preconditioning) reduced muscle infarction from 43 ± 4% (ischemic control) to 24 ± 2 and 19 ± 3%, respectively ( P < 0.05, n = 8). Intravenous injection of the sKATP channel inhibitor HMR 1098 (6 mg/kg) or the nonspecific KATP channel inhibitor glibenclamide (Glib; 1 mg/kg) at 10 min before remote IPC completely blocked the infarct- protective effect of remote IPC in LD muscle flaps subjected to 4 h of sustained ischemia at 24 h after remote IPC. Intravenous bolus injection of the mitochondrial KATP (mKATP) channel inhibitor 5-hydroxydecanoate (5-HD; 5 mg/kg) immediately before remote IPC and 30-min intravenous infusion of 5-HD (5 mg/kg) during remote IPC did not affect the infarct-protective effect of remote IPC in LD muscle flaps. However, intravenous Glib or 5-HD, but not HMR 1098, given 24 h after remote IPC completely blocked the late infarct-protective effect of remote IPC in LD muscle flaps. None of these drug treatments affected the infarct size of control LD muscle flaps. The late phase of infarct protection was associated with a higher ( P < 0.05) muscle content of ATP at the end of 4 h of ischemia and 1.5 h of reperfusion and a lower ( P < 0.05) neutrophilic activity at the end of 1.5 h of reperfusion compared with the time-matched control. In conclusion, these findings support our hypothesis that hindlimb remote IPC induces an uninterrupted long (48 h) late phase of infarct protection, and sKATP and mKATP channels play a central role in the trigger and mediator mechanism, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael A Moses
- Research Institute, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON, Canada M5G 1X8
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Gross GJ. Remote preconditioning and delayed cardioprotection in skeletal muscle. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2005; 289:R1562-3. [PMID: 16278340 DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00627.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Abstract
Microvascular dysfunction mediates many of the local and systemic consequences of ischemic-reperfusion (I/R) injury, with a spectrum of changes specific to arterioles, capillaries, and venules. This review discusses the specific changes in the endothelium during I/R injury; describes the differential responses of the various levels of the vasculature including arterioles, capillaries, and venules; and explores mechanisms for remote organ injury. Vascular dysfunction is largely a consequence of changes in the endothelial cells themselves, affecting the integrity of barrier function, cytokine and adhesion molecule expression, and vascular tone. The bioavailability of nitric oxide, an important mediator of vasodilation, is profoundly decreased during the reperfusion period, resulting in impaired vasodilation of arterioles. Release of inflammatory mediators and increased expression of adhesion molecules initiate inflammatory and coagulation cascades that culminate in the occlusion of capillaries, known as the "no-reflow''" phenomenon. In postcapillary venules, the recruitment and transmigration of leukocytes further compromise the integrity of the endothelial barrier and increase the oxidative burden, resulting in leakage and tissue edema. I/R injury can have significant and untoward consequences beyond the affected tissue, with such conditions as systemic inflammatory response syndrome. This review highlights recent progress in understanding of the varied phenomena of vascular dysfunction in I/R injury and some promising advances in the understanding and application of ischemic preconditioning and other potential therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- John B Seal
- Pritzker School of Medicine, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
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