Membrane localization and pH-dependent transport of a newly cloned organic cation transporter (PMAT) in kidney cells

Podocyte-specific expression of organic cation transporter PMAT: implication in puromycin aminonucleoside nephrotoxicity

Plasma membrane monoamine transporter (PMAT) is a novel polyspecific organic cation transporter that transports organic cations and the purine nucleoside, adenosine. PMAT is expressed in the kidney, but the specific localization and function of this transporter in renal cells are unclear. In this study, we developed a polyclonal antibody toward a 14-amino acid sequence in the last intracellular loop of PMAT and determined the precise cellular localization of PMAT in human and rat kidneys. Surprisingly, we found that the PMAT protein was predominantly expressed in the glomerulus with minimal expression in tubular cells. Within the glomerulus, dual-color immunofluorescence labeling showed that the PMAT protein was specifically localized to the visceral glomerular epithelial cells, i.e., podocytes. There was no significant PMAT immunoreactivity in mesangial or glomerular endothelial cells. We further showed that puromycin aminonucleoside (PAN), a classic podocyte toxin that induces massive proteinuria and severe glomerulopathy, is transported by PMAT. Expression of PMAT in Madin-Darby canine kidney cells significantly increased cell sensitivity to PAN. Decynium 22, a potent PMAT inhibitor, abolished PAN toxicity in PMAT-expressing cells. Together, our data suggest that PMAT is specifically expressed in podocytes and may play an important role in PAN-induced kidney injury.

Human equilibrative nucleoside transporter (ENT) family of nucleoside and nucleobase transporter proteins

1. The human (h) SLC29 family of integral membrane proteins is represented by four members, designated equilibrative nucleoside transporters (ENTs) because of the properties of the first-characterized family member, hENT1. They belong to the widely distributed eukaryotic ENT family of equilibrative and concentrative nucleoside/nucleobase transporter proteins. 2. A predicted topology of eleven transmembrane helices has been experimentally confirmed for hENT1. The best-characterized members of the family, hENT1 and hENT2, possess similar broad permeant selectivities for purine and pyrimidine nucleosides, but hENT2 also efficiently transports nucleobases. hENT3 has a similar broad permeant selectivity for nucleosides and nucleobases and appears to function in intracellular membranes, including lysosomes. 3. hENT4 is uniquely selective for adenosine, and also transports a variety of organic cations. hENT3 and hENT4 are pH sensitive, and optimally active under acidic conditions. ENTs, including those in parasitic protozoa, function in nucleoside and nucleobase uptake for salvage pathways of nucleotide synthesis and, in humans, are also responsible for the cellular uptake of nucleoside analogues used in the treatment of cancers and viral diseases. 4. By regulating the concentration of adenosine available to cell surface receptors, mammalian ENTs additionally influence physiological processes ranging from cardiovascular activity to neurotransmission.

Polymorphism in human organic cation transporters and metformin action

Considerable interindividual variabilities in clinical efficacy and adverse events are sometimes recognized in the treatment of Type 2 diabetes mellitus with oral antihyperglycemic drugs. Metformin is the most commonly used biguanide in clinical practice, and also improves insulin resistance and reduces cardiovascular risk. However, certain patients taking metformin do not respond sufficiently. The molecular reasons for the variability in response to metformin are not clear. However, it has been recently suggested that genetic factors may be responsible for the variability. Metformin is not metabolized but is transported by at least two organic cation transporters (OCT), OCT1 and OCT2. Recently, genetic polymorphisms in OCT 1 and OCT2 have been found to be associated with changes in pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic responses to substrate drugs. This review focuses on the impact of the genetic polymorphism of organic cation transporters on transport activity, and the implications for the clinical efficacy of metformin.

Adenosine transporter ENT4 is a direct target of EWS/WT1 translocation product and is highly expressed in desmoplastic small round cell tumor

Background

Desmoplastic Small Round Cell Tumor (DSRCT) is a highly aggressive malignancy that affects mainly adolescents and young adults. A defining characteristic of DSRCT is a specific chromosomal translocation, t(11;22)(p13;q12), that fuses EWS with WT1, leading to a production of two isoforms of chimeric transcription factor, EWS/WT1(−KTS) and EWS/WT1(+KTS). The chimeric proteins are thought to play critical roles in various stages of oncogenesis through aberrant transcription of different genes, but only a few of these genes have been identified.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We report the identification of a new target of EWS/WT1, ENT4 (equilibrative nucleoside transporter 4) which encodes a pH-dependent adenosine transporter. ENT4 is transcriptionally activated by both isoforms of EWS/WT1 as evidenced by promoter-reporter and chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) analyses. Furthermore, ENT4 is highly and specifically expressed in primary tumors of DSRCT as well as in a DSRCT cell line, JN-DSRCT-1. Treatment of JN-DSRCT-1 cells with adenosine analogs, such as 2-chloro-2′-deoxyadenosine (2-CdA), resulted in an increased cytotoxic response in dose- and pH-dependent manner.

Conclusions/Significance

Our detailed analyses of a novel target of EWS/WT1 in DSRCT reveal an insight into the oncogenic mechanism of EWS-fusion chromosomal translocation gene products and provide a new marker for DSRCT. Furthermore, identification of ENT4 as a highly expressed transcript in DSRCT may represent an attractive pathway for targeting chemotherapeutic drugs into DSRCT.

A purine-selective nucleobase/nucleoside transporter in PK15NTD cells

Nucleoside and nucleobase transporters are important for salvage of purines and pyrimidines and for transport of their analog drugs into cells. However, the pathways for nucleobase translocation in mammalian cells are not well characterized. We identified an Na-independent purine-selective nucleobase/nucleoside transport system in the nucleoside transporter-deficient PK15NTD cells. This transport system has 1,000-fold higher affinity for nucleobases than nucleosides with K(m) values of 2.5 +/- 0.7 microM for [(3)H]adenine, 6.4 +/- 0.5 microM for [(3)H]guanine, 1.1 +/- 0.1 mM for [(3)H]guanosine, and 4.2 +/- 0.5 mM [(3)H]adenosine. The uptake of [(3)H]guanine (0.05 microM) was inhibited by other nucleobases and nucleobase analog drugs (at 0.5-1 mM in the order of potency): 6-mercaptopurine = thioguanine = guanine > adenine >>> thymine = fluorouracil = uracil. Cytosine and methylcytosine had no effect. Nucleoside analog drugs with modification at 2' and/or 5 positions (all at 1 mM) were more potent than adenosine in competing the uptake of [(3)H]guanine: 2-chloro-2'-deoxyadenosine > 2-chloroadenosine > 2'3'-dideoxyadenosine = 2'-deoxyadenosine > 5-deoxyadenosine > adenosine. 2-Chloro-2'-deoxyadenosine and 2-chloroadenosine inhibited [(3)H]guanine uptake with IC(50) values of 68 +/- 5 and 99 +/- 10 microM, respectively. The nucleobase/nucleoside transporter was resistant to nitrobenzylthioinosine {6-[(4-nitrobenzyl) thiol]-9-beta-D-ribofuranosylpurine}, dipyridamole, and dilazep, but was inhibited by papaverine, the organic cation transporter inhibitor decynium-22 (IC(50) of approximately 1 microM), and by acidic pH (pH = 5.5). In conclusion, we have identified a mammalian purine-selective nucleobase/nucleoside transporter with high affinity for purine nucleobases. This transporter is potentially important for transporting naturally occurring purines and purine analog drugs into cells.

Carrier-mediated cellular uptake of pharmaceutical drugs: an exception or the rule?

It is generally thought that many drug molecules are transported across biological membranes via passive diffusion at a rate related to their lipophilicity. However, the types of biophysical forces involved in the interaction of drugs with lipid membranes are no different from those involved in their interaction with proteins, and so arguments based on lipophilicity could also be applied to drug uptake by membrane transporters or carriers. In this article, we discuss the evidence supporting the idea that rather than being an exception, carrier-mediated and active uptake of drugs may be more common than is usually assumed - including a summary of specific cases in which drugs are known to be taken up into cells via defined carriers - and consider the implications for drug discovery and development.

Caki-1 cells as a model system for the interaction of renally secreted drugs with OCT3

BACKGROUND/AIMS

Organic cation transporters (OCT) in the proximal tubules (PTs) participate in the renal secretion of several therapeutic agents. The exact role of OCT3 in renal secretion remains undetermined, partially due to the lack of an appropriate in vitro model system. The current work introduces the PT representative cell line, Caki-1, as a model system for studying the involvement of OCT3 in renal secretion.

METHODS

Caki-1 cells were characterized for OCT3 expression via real-time RT-PCR and immunocytochemical staining techniques. Uptake kinetics of OCT3 in Caki-1 cells was determined using prototypical substrates and inhibitors. Inhibition of OCT3-mediated uptake via several renally secreted drugs and those specifically of quaternary ammonium structure were determined.

RESULTS

OCT3 expression was confirmed at the gene level and subcellular localization to the basolateral membrane (BLM) was illustrated for the first time. Caki-1 cells exhibited trademark kinetics of OCT3 and interacted with all therapeutic agents tested with varying affinities. The apparent IC(50 )values for cimetidine and trimethoprim were pharmacologically relevant.

CONCLUSION

Confirmation for the usefulness of Caki-1 cells as a PT model system for investigations of OCT3 was obtained, a novel BLM localization of OCT3 was possible and relevant interactions between OCT3 and renally secreted drugs were shown.

Metformin transport by a newly cloned proton-stimulated organic cation transporter (plasma membrane monoamine transporter) expressed in human intestine

Metformin is a widely used oral antihyperglycemic drug for the treatment of type II diabetes mellitus. The intestinal absorption of metformin is dose-dependent and involves an active, saturable uptake process. Metformin has been shown to be transported by the human organic cation transporters 1 and 2 (hOCT1-2). We recently cloned and characterized a novel proton-activated organic cation transporter, plasma membrane monoamine transporter (PMAT). We previously showed that PMAT transports many classic organic cations (e.g., monoamine neurotransmitters, 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium) in a pH-dependent manner and its mRNA is expressed in multiple human tissues. The goal of this study is to investigate whether metformin is a substrate of PMAT and whether PMAT plays a role in the intestinal uptake of metformin. Using Madin-Darby canine kidney cells stably expressing human PMAT, we showed that metformin is avidly transported by PMAT, with an apparent affinity (K(m) = 1.32 mM) comparable to those reported for hOCT1-2. Interestingly, the concentration-velocity profile of PMAT-mediated metformin uptake is sigmoidal, with a Hill coefficient of 2.64. PMAT-mediated metformin transport is greatly stimulated by acidic pH, with the uptake rate being approximately 4-fold higher at pH 6.6 than at pH 7.4. Using a polyclonal antibody against PMAT, we showed that the PMAT protein (58 kDa) was expressed in human small intestine and concentrated on the tips of the mucosal epithelial layer. Taken together, our results suggest that PMAT transports metformin, is expressed in human intestine, and may play a role in the intestinal absorption of metformin and possibly other cationic drugs.

Expression and immunolocalization of the plasma membrane monoamine transporter in the brain

High affinity monoamine transporters efficiently terminate neurotransmission through synaptic reuptake of released neurotransmitter. We recently cloned and characterized a novel low-affinity, high capacity plasma membrane monoamine transporter (PMAT) that is strongly expressed in the human brain and efficiently transports 5-HT and dopamine (DA). In efforts to understand the physiological function of PMAT and its relevance in monoaminergic pathways, we cloned the PMAT homolog from the mouse brain, demonstrated its capability for transporting 5-HT and DA, and determined the regional and cellular localization of mouse plasma membrane monoamine transporter (mPMAT) in adult mouse brain by reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction, non-radioactive in situ hybridization, and immunohistochemical methods. Our results showed that mPMAT mRNA and protein are broadly expressed in the mouse brain and are particularly abundant in forebrain cortex, olfactory tubercle, hippocampus, cerebellum and epithelial cells of the choroid plexus. Dual-immunofluorescence histochemistry with established phenotypic markers microtubule-associated protein (MAP2) and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) revealed that mPMAT is expressed in neuronal cells but not in astrocytes. mPMAT is co-expressed in many brain regions with the high affinity 5-HT transporter (SERT) and the dopamine transporter (DAT), but is also found in certain sites that receive monoamine innervation but lack significant expression of SERT or DAT. These findings suggest that mPMAT is a widely distributed, neuronally-expressed transporter, which may support the role of 5-HT and DA uptake under certain conditions.

Renal nucleoside transporters: physiological and clinical implicationsThis paper is one of a selection of papers published in this Special Issue, entitled CSBMCB — Membrane Proteins in Health and Disease

Renal handling of physiological and pharmacological nucleosides is a major determinant of their plasma levels and tissue availabilities. Additionally, the pharmacokinetics and normal tissue toxicities of nucleoside drugs are influenced by their handling in the kidney. Renal reabsorption or secretion of nucleosides is selective and dependent on integral membrane proteins, termed nucleoside transporters (NTs) present in renal epithelia. The 7 known human NTs (hNTs) exhibit varying permeant selectivities and are divided into 2 protein families: the solute carrier (SLC) 29 (SLC29A1, SLC29A2, SLC29A3, SLC29A4) and SLC28 (SLC28A1, SLC28A2, SLC28A3) proteins, otherwise known, respectively, as the human equilibrative NTs (hENTs, hENT1, hENT2, hENT3, hENT4) and human concentrative NTs (hCNTs, hCNT1, hCNT2, hCNT3). The well characterized hENTs (hENT1 and hENT2) are bidirectional facilitative diffusion transporters in plasma membranes; hENT3 and hENT4 are much less well known, although hENT3, found in lysosomal membranes, transports nucleosides and is pH dependent, whereas hENT4–PMAT is a H+-adenosine cotransporter as well as a monoamine–organic cation transporter. The 3 hCNTs are unidirectional secondary active Na+-nucleoside cotransporters. In renal epithelial cells, hCNT1, hCNT2, and hCNT3 at apical membranes, and hENT1 and hENT2 at basolateral membranes, apparently work in concert to mediate reabsorption of nucleosides from lumen to blood, driven by Na+ gradients. Secretion of some physiological nucleosides, therapeutic nucleoside analog drugs, and nucleotide metabolites of therapeutic nucleoside and nucleobase drugs likely occurs through various xenobiotic transporters in renal epithelia, including organic cation transporters, organic anion transporters, multidrug resistance related proteins, and multidrug resistance proteins. Mounting evidence suggests that hENT1 may have a presence at both apical and basolateral membranes of renal epithelia, and thus may participate in both selective secretory and reabsorptive fluxes of nucleosides. In this review, the renal handling of nucleosides is examined with respect to physiological and clinical implications for the regulation of human kidney NTs and adenosine signaling, intracellular nucleoside transport, and nephrotoxicities associated with some nucleoside drugs.