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Andrews MG, Nowakowski TJ. Human brain development through the lens of cerebral organoid models. Brain Res 2019; 1725:146470. [PMID: 31542572 PMCID: PMC6887101 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2019.146470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2019] [Revised: 08/21/2019] [Accepted: 09/18/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The brain is one of the most complex organs in the body, which emerges from a relatively simple set of basic 'building blocks' during early development according to complex cellular and molecular events orchestrated through a set of inherited instructions. Innovations in stem cell technologies have enabled modelling of neural cells using two- and three-dimensional cultures. In particular, cerebral ('brain') organoids have taken the center stage of brain development models that have the potential for providing meaningful insight into human neurodevelopmental and neurological disorders. We review the current understanding of cellular events during human brain organogenesis, and the events occurring during cerebral organoid differentiation. We highlight the strengths and weaknesses of this experimental model system. In particular, we explain evidence that organoids can mimic many aspects of early neural development, including neural induction, patterning, and broad neurogenesis and gliogenesis programs, offering the opportunity to study genetic regulation of these processes in a human context. Several shortcomings of the current culture methods limit the utility of cerebral organoids to spontaneously give rise to many important cell types, and to model higher order features of tissue organization. We suggest that future studies aim to improve these features in order to make them better models for the study of laminar organization, circuit formation and how disruptions of these processes relate to disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madeline G Andrews
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA; The Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA.
| | - Tomasz J Nowakowski
- Department of Anatomy, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA; Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA; Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, San Francisco, CA, USA.
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Nguyen VT, Tieng QM, Mardon K, Zhang C, Chong S, Galloway GJ, Kurniawan ND. Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Micro-Computed Tomography reveal brain morphological abnormalities in a mouse model of early moderate prenatal ethanol exposure. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2019; 77:106849. [PMID: 31838218 DOI: 10.1016/j.ntt.2019.106849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2019] [Revised: 11/01/2019] [Accepted: 12/04/2019] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND This study investigated the effects of early moderate prenatal ethanol exposure (PEE) on the brain in a mouse model that mimics a scenario in humans, whereby moderate daily drinking ceases after a woman becomes aware of her pregnancy. METHODS C57BL/6J pregnant mice were given 10% v/v ethanol from gestational day 0-8 in the drinking water. The male offspring were used for imaging. Anatomical and diffusion Magnetic Resonance Imaging were performed in vivo at postnatal day 28 (P28, adolescence) and P80 (adulthood). Micro-Computed Tomography was performed on fixed whole heads at P80. Tensor-based morphometry (TBM) was applied to detect alterations in brain structure and voxel-based morphometry (VBM) for skull morphology. Diffusion tensor and neurite orientation dispersion and density imaging models were used to detect microstructural changes. Neurofilament (NF) immunohistochemistry was used to validate findings by in vivo diffusion MRI. RESULTS TBM showed that PEE mice exhibited a significantly smaller third ventricle at P28 (family-wise error rate (FWE), p < 0.05). All other macro-structural alterations did not survive FWE corrections but when displayed with an uncorrected p < 0.005 showed multiple regional volume reductions and expansions, more prominently in the right hemisphere. PEE-induced gross volume changes included a bigger thalamus, hypothalamus and ventricles at P28, and bigger total brain volumes at both P28 and P80 (2-sample t-tests). Disproportionately smaller olfactory bulbs following PEE were revealed at both time-points. No alterations in diffusion parameters were detected, but PEE animals exhibited reduced NF positive staining in the thalamus and striatum and greater bone density in various skull regions. CONCLUSION Our results show that early moderate PEE can cause alterations in the brain that are detectable during development and adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Van T Nguyen
- Centre for Advanced Imaging, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; Hanoi University of Science and Technology, Hanoi, Viet Nam
| | - Quang M Tieng
- Centre for Advanced Imaging, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Karine Mardon
- Centre for Advanced Imaging, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; National Imaging Facility, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Christine Zhang
- Mater Research Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Suyinn Chong
- Mater Research Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; Translational Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Graham J Galloway
- Centre for Advanced Imaging, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; Translational Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; National Imaging Facility, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Nyoman D Kurniawan
- Centre for Advanced Imaging, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.
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Orlowska-Feuer P, Smyk MK, Palus-Chramiec K, Dyl K, Lewandowski MH. Orexin A as a modulator of dorsal lateral geniculate neuronal activity: a comprehensive electrophysiological study on adult rats. Sci Rep 2019; 9:16729. [PMID: 31723155 PMCID: PMC6853907 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-53012-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2019] [Accepted: 10/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Orexins (OXA, OXB) are hypothalamic peptides playing crucial roles in arousal, feeding, social and reward-related behaviours. A recent study on juvenile rats suggested their involvement in vision modulation due to their direct action on dorsal lateral geniculate (dLGN) neurons. The present study aimed to verify whether a similar action of OXA can be observed in adulthood. Thus, in vivo and in vitro electrophysiological recordings on adult Wistar rats across light-dark and cortical cycles were conducted under urethane anaesthesia. OXA influenced ~28% of dLGN neurons recorded in vivo by either excitation or suppression of neuronal firing. OXA-responsive neurons did not show any spatial distribution nor represent a coherent group of dLGN cells, and responded to OXA similarly across the light-dark cycle. Interestingly, some OXA-responsive neurons worked in a cortical state-dependent manner, especially during the dark phase, and 'preferred' cortical activation over slow-wave activity induced by urethane. The corresponding patch clamp study confirmed these results by showing that < 20% of dLGN neurons were excited by OXA under both light regimes. The results suggest that OXA is involved in the development of the visual system rather than in visual processes and further implicate OXA in the mediation of circadian and arousal-related activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrycja Orlowska-Feuer
- Malopolska Centre of Biotechnology (MCB), Jagiellonian University in Krakow, Krakow, Poland.
- Department of Neurophysiology and Chronobiology, Institute of Zoology and Biomedical Research, Jagiellonian University in Krakow, Krakow, Poland.
| | - Magdalena Kinga Smyk
- Malopolska Centre of Biotechnology (MCB), Jagiellonian University in Krakow, Krakow, Poland
- Department of Neurophysiology and Chronobiology, Institute of Zoology and Biomedical Research, Jagiellonian University in Krakow, Krakow, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Palus-Chramiec
- Department of Neurophysiology and Chronobiology, Institute of Zoology and Biomedical Research, Jagiellonian University in Krakow, Krakow, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Dyl
- Department of Neurophysiology and Chronobiology, Institute of Zoology and Biomedical Research, Jagiellonian University in Krakow, Krakow, Poland
| | - Marian Henryk Lewandowski
- Department of Neurophysiology and Chronobiology, Institute of Zoology and Biomedical Research, Jagiellonian University in Krakow, Krakow, Poland.
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Modulation of Spontaneous and Light-Induced Activity in the Rat Dorsal Lateral Geniculate Nucleus by General Brain State Alterations under Urethane Anesthesia. Neuroscience 2019; 413:279-293. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2019.06.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2019] [Revised: 05/23/2019] [Accepted: 06/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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Mercurio S, Serra L, Motta A, Gesuita L, Sanchez-Arrones L, Inverardi F, Foglio B, Barone C, Kaimakis P, Martynoga B, Ottolenghi S, Studer M, Guillemot F, Frassoni C, Bovolenta P, Nicolis SK. Sox2 Acts in Thalamic Neurons to Control the Development of Retina-Thalamus-Cortex Connectivity. iScience 2019; 15:257-273. [PMID: 31082736 PMCID: PMC6517317 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2019.04.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2019] [Revised: 04/05/2019] [Accepted: 04/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Visual system development involves the formation of neuronal projections connecting the retina to the thalamic dorso-lateral geniculate nucleus (dLGN) and the thalamus to the visual cerebral cortex. Patients carrying mutations in the SOX2 transcription factor gene present severe visual defects, thought to be linked to SOX2 functions in the retina. We show that Sox2 is strongly expressed in mouse postmitotic thalamic projection neurons. Cre-mediated deletion of Sox2 in these neurons causes reduction of the dLGN, abnormal distribution of retino-thalamic and thalamo-cortical projections, and secondary defects in cortical patterning. Reduced expression, in mutants, of Sox2 target genes encoding ephrin-A5 and the serotonin transport molecules SERT and vMAT2 (important for establishment of thalamic connectivity) likely provides a molecular contribution to these defects. These findings unveil thalamic SOX2 function as a novel regulator of visual system development and a plausible additional cause of brain-linked genetic blindness in humans. Sox2 is expressed in postmitotic neurons of the visual thalamic nucleus (dLGN) Sox2 ablation in the dLGN perturbs retino-thalamic and thalamo-cortical projections The visual cortex is not correctly patterned in Sox2 thalamic mutants Downregulation of EphrinA5 and SERT expression may mediate these defects
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Mercurio
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, piazza della Scienza 2, 20126 Milano, Italy
| | - Linda Serra
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, piazza della Scienza 2, 20126 Milano, Italy; Université Côte d'Azur, CNRS, Inserm, iBV, Nice, France
| | - Alessia Motta
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, piazza della Scienza 2, 20126 Milano, Italy
| | - Lorenzo Gesuita
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, piazza della Scienza 2, 20126 Milano, Italy
| | - Luisa Sanchez-Arrones
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas - Universidad Autónoma de Madrid and CIBER de Enfermedades Raras (CIBERER), ISCIII Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Francesca Inverardi
- Clinical and Experimental Epileptology Unit, Fondazione I.R.C.C.S. Istituto Neurologico "Carlo Besta", c/o AMADEOLAB, via Amadeo 42, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Benedetta Foglio
- Clinical and Experimental Epileptology Unit, Fondazione I.R.C.C.S. Istituto Neurologico "Carlo Besta", c/o AMADEOLAB, via Amadeo 42, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Cristiana Barone
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, piazza della Scienza 2, 20126 Milano, Italy
| | - Polynikis Kaimakis
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas - Universidad Autónoma de Madrid and CIBER de Enfermedades Raras (CIBERER), ISCIII Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Ben Martynoga
- The Francis Crick Institute, Midland Road, London NW 1AT, UK
| | - Sergio Ottolenghi
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, piazza della Scienza 2, 20126 Milano, Italy
| | | | | | - Carolina Frassoni
- Clinical and Experimental Epileptology Unit, Fondazione I.R.C.C.S. Istituto Neurologico "Carlo Besta", c/o AMADEOLAB, via Amadeo 42, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Paola Bovolenta
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas - Universidad Autónoma de Madrid and CIBER de Enfermedades Raras (CIBERER), ISCIII Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Silvia K Nicolis
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, piazza della Scienza 2, 20126 Milano, Italy.
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Developmental Remodeling of Thalamic Interneurons Requires Retinal Signaling. J Neurosci 2019; 39:3856-3866. [PMID: 30842249 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2224-18.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2018] [Revised: 02/04/2019] [Accepted: 02/26/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus (dLGN) of the mouse is a model system to study the development of thalamic circuitry. Most studies focus on relay neurons of dLGN, yet little is known about the development of the other principal cell type, intrinsic interneurons. Here we examined whether the structure and function of interneurons relies on retinal signaling. We took a loss-of-function approach and crossed GAD67-GFP mice, which express GFP in dLGN interneurons, with math5 nulls (math5-/-), mutants that lack retinal ganglion cells and retinofugal projections. In vitro recordings and 3-D reconstructions of biocytin-filled interneurons at different postnatal ages showed their development is a multistaged process involving migration, arbor remodeling, and synapse formation. Arbor remodeling begins during the second postnatal week, after migration to and dispersion within dLGN is complete. This phase includes a period of exuberant branching where arbors grow in number, complexity, and field size. Such growth is followed by branch pruning and stabilization, as interneurons adopt a bipolar architecture. The absence of retinal signaling disrupts this process. The math5-/- interneurons fail to branch and prune, and instead maintain a simple, sparse architecture. To test how such defects influence connectivity with dLGN relay neurons, we used DHPG [(RS)-3,5-dihydroxyphenylglycine], the mGluR1,5 agonist that targets F2 terminals. This led to substantial increases in IPSC activity among WT relay neurons but had little impact in math5-/- mice. Together, these data suggest that retinal signaling is needed to support the arbor elaboration and synaptic connectivity of dLGN interneurons.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Presently, our understanding about the development of the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus is limited to circuits involving excitatory thalamocortical relay neurons. Here we show that the other principal cell type, intrinsic interneurons, has a multistaged developmental plan that relies on retinal innervation. These findings indicate that signaling from the periphery guides the maturation of interneurons and the establishment of inhibitory thalamic circuits.
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He J, Xu X, Monavarfeshani A, Banerjee S, Fox MA, Xie H. Retinal-input-induced epigenetic dynamics in the developing mouse dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus. Epigenetics Chromatin 2019; 12:13. [PMID: 30764861 PMCID: PMC6374911 DOI: 10.1186/s13072-019-0257-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2018] [Accepted: 02/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
DNA methylation plays important roles in the regulation of nervous system development and in cellular responses to environmental stimuli such as light-derived signals. Despite great efforts in understanding the maturation and refinement of visual circuits, we lack a clear understanding of how changes in DNA methylation correlate with visual activity in the developing subcortical visual system, such as in the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus (dLGN), the main retino-recipient region in the dorsal thalamus. Here, we explored epigenetic dynamics underlying dLGN development at ages before and after eye opening in wild-type mice and mutant mice in which retinal ganglion cells fail to form. We observed that development-related epigenetic changes tend to co-localize together on functional genomic regions critical for regulating gene expression, while retinal-input-induced epigenetic changes are enriched on repetitive elements. Enhancers identified in neurons are prone to methylation dynamics during development, and activity-induced enhancers are associated with retinal-input-induced epigenetic changes. Intriguingly, the binding motifs of activity-dependent transcription factors, including EGR1 and members of MEF2 family, are enriched in the genomic regions with epigenetic aberrations in dLGN tissues of mutant mice lacking retinal inputs. Overall, our study sheds new light on the epigenetic regulatory mechanisms underlying the role of retinal inputs on the development of mouse dLGN.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianlin He
- Biocomplexity Institute of Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA
| | - Xiguang Xu
- Biocomplexity Institute of Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA.,Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA
| | - Aboozar Monavarfeshani
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA.,Developmental and Translational Neurobiology Center, Fralin Biomedical Research Institute at Virginia Tech Carilion, Roanoke, VA, 24016, USA
| | - Sharmi Banerjee
- Biocomplexity Institute of Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA.,Bradley Department of Electrical Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA
| | - Michael A Fox
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA. .,Developmental and Translational Neurobiology Center, Fralin Biomedical Research Institute at Virginia Tech Carilion, Roanoke, VA, 24016, USA. .,Department of Pediatrics, Virginia Tech Carilion School of Medicine, Roanoke, VA, 24016, USA.
| | - Hehuang Xie
- Biocomplexity Institute of Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA. .,Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA. .,Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA.
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Sokhadze G, Seabrook TA, Guido W. The absence of retinal input disrupts the development of cholinergic brainstem projections in the mouse dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus. Neural Dev 2018; 13:27. [PMID: 30541618 PMCID: PMC6291928 DOI: 10.1186/s13064-018-0124-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2017] [Accepted: 11/29/2018] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus (dLGN) of the mouse has become a model system for understanding thalamic circuit assembly. While the development of retinal projections to dLGN has been a topic of extensive inquiry, how and when nonretinal projections innervate this nucleus remains largely unexplored. In this study, we examined the development of a major nonretinal projection to dLGN, the ascending input arising from cholinergic neurons of the brainstem. To visualize these projections, we used a transgenic mouse line that expresses red fluorescent protein exclusively in cholinergic neurons. To assess whether retinal input regulates the timing and pattern of cholinergic innervation of dLGN, we utilized the math5-null (math5−/−) mouse, which lacks retinofugal projections due to a failure of retinal ganglion cell differentiation. Results Cholinergic brainstem innervation of dLGN began at the end of the first postnatal week, increased steadily with age, and reached an adult-like pattern by the end of the first postnatal month. The absence of retinal input led to a disruption in the trajectory, rate, and pattern of cholinergic innervation of dLGN. Anatomical tracing experiments reveal these disruptions were linked to cholinergic projections from parabigeminal nucleus, which normally traverse and reach dLGN through the optic tract. Conclusions The late postnatal arrival of cholinergic projections to dLGN and their regulation by retinal signaling provides additional support for the existence of a conserved developmental plan whereby retinal input regulates the timing and sequencing of nonretinal projections to dLGN.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guela Sokhadze
- Department of Anatomical Sciences and Neurobiology, University of Louisville School of Medicine, 511 S. Floyd St, Louisville, KY, 40292, USA
| | - Tania A Seabrook
- Department of Anatomical Sciences and Neurobiology, University of Louisville School of Medicine, 511 S. Floyd St, Louisville, KY, 40292, USA
| | - William Guido
- Department of Anatomical Sciences and Neurobiology, University of Louisville School of Medicine, 511 S. Floyd St, Louisville, KY, 40292, USA.
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