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Affiliation(s)
- Emiel P C van der Vorst
- From the Institute for Cardiovascular Prevention, Department of Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany (E.P.C.v.d.V., Y.D., C.W.); DZHK (German Centre for Cardiovascular Research), Partner Site Munich Heart Alliance, Munich, Germany (Y.D., C.W.); and Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht (CARIM), Department of Biochemistry, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands (C.W.)
| | - Yvonne Döring
- From the Institute for Cardiovascular Prevention, Department of Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany (E.P.C.v.d.V., Y.D., C.W.); DZHK (German Centre for Cardiovascular Research), Partner Site Munich Heart Alliance, Munich, Germany (Y.D., C.W.); and Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht (CARIM), Department of Biochemistry, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands (C.W.)
| | - Christian Weber
- From the Institute for Cardiovascular Prevention, Department of Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany (E.P.C.v.d.V., Y.D., C.W.); DZHK (German Centre for Cardiovascular Research), Partner Site Munich Heart Alliance, Munich, Germany (Y.D., C.W.); and Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht (CARIM), Department of Biochemistry, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands (C.W.).
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52
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Dorgham K, Cerini F, Gaertner H, Melotti A, Rossitto-Borlat I, Gorochov G, Hartley O. Generating Chemokine Analogs with Enhanced Pharmacological Properties Using Phage Display. Methods Enzymol 2016; 570:47-72. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.mie.2015.09.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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AZD8797 is an allosteric non-competitive modulator of the human CX3CR1 receptor. Biochem J 2015; 473:641-9. [PMID: 26656484 PMCID: PMC4764977 DOI: 10.1042/bj20150520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2015] [Accepted: 12/11/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The present paper shows the non-competitive mechanism by which AZD8797 blocks fractalkine from binding and activating the CX3CR1 receptor. CX3CR1 is involved in many diseases but, lacking non-peptide ligands, it is poorly investigated. Our work can therefore facilitate drug development. The chemokine receptor CX3CR1 has been implicated as an attractive therapeutic target in several diseases, including atherosclerosis and diabetes. However, there has been a lack of non-peptide CX3CR1 inhibitors to substantiate these findings. A selective small-molecule inhibitor of CX3CR1, AZD8797, was recently reported and we present here an in-depth in vitro characterization of that molecule. In a flow adhesion assay, AZD8797 antagonized the natural ligand, fractalkine (CX3CL1), in both human whole blood (hWB) and in a B-lymphocyte cell line with IC50 values of 300 and 6 nM respectively. AZD8797 also prevented G-protein activation in a [35S]GTPγS (guanosine 5′-[γ-thio]triphosphate) accumulation assay. In contrast, dynamic mass redistribution (DMR) experiments revealed a weak Gαi-dependent AZD8797 agonism. Additionally, AZD8797 positively modulated the CX3CL1 response at sub-micromolar concentrations in a β-arrestin recruitment assay. In equilibrium saturation binding experiments, AZD8797 reduced the maximal binding of 125I-CX3CL1 without affecting Kd. Kinetic experiments, determining the kon and koff of AZD8797, demonstrated that this was not an artefact of irreversible or insurmountable binding, thus a true non-competitive mechanism. Finally we show that both AZD8797 and GTPγS increase the rate with which CX3CL1 dissociates from CX3CR1 in a similar manner, indicating a connection between AZD8797 and the CX3CR1-bound G-protein. Collectively, these data show that AZD8797 is a non-competitive allosteric modulator of CX3CL1, binding CX3CR1 and effecting G-protein signalling and β-arrestin recruitment in a biased way.
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Abstract
The immune reactions that regulate atherosclerotic plaque inflammation involve chemokines, lipid mediators and costimulatory molecules. Chemokines are a family of chemotactic cytokines that mediate immune cell recruitment and control cell homeostasis and activation of different immune cell types and subsets. Chemokine production and activation of chemokine receptors form a positive feedback mechanism to recruit monocytes, neutrophils and lymphocytes into the atherosclerotic plaque. In addition, chemokine signalling affects immune cell mobilization from the bone marrow. Targeting several of the chemokines and/or chemokine receptors reduces experimental atherosclerosis, whereas specific chemokine pathways appear to be involved in plaque regression. Leukotrienes are lipid mediators that are formed locally in atherosclerotic lesions from arachidonic acid. Leukotrienes mediate immune cell recruitment and activation within the plaque as well as smooth muscle cell proliferation and endothelial dysfunction. Antileukotrienes decrease experimental atherosclerosis, and recent observational data suggest beneficial clinical effects of leukotriene receptor antagonism in cardiovascular disease prevention. By contrast, other lipid mediators, such as lipoxins and metabolites of omega-3 fatty acids, have been associated with the resolution of inflammation. Costimulatory molecules play a central role in fine-tuning immunological reactions and mediate crosstalk between innate and adaptive immunity in atherosclerosis. Targeting these interactions is a promising approach for the treatment of atherosclerosis, but immunological side effects are still a concern. In summary, targeting chemokines, leukotriene receptors and costimulatory molecules could represent potential therapeutic strategies to control atherosclerotic plaque inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Bäck
- Translational Cardiology, Department of Medicine, Center for Molecular Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.,Department of Cardiology, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - C Weber
- Institute for Cardiovascular Prevention (IPEK), Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany.,German Center for Cardiovascular Research (DZHK), partner site Munich Heart Alliance, Munich, Germany.,Department of Biochemistry, Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht (CARIM), University of Maastricht, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - E Lutgens
- Institute for Cardiovascular Prevention (IPEK), Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany.,German Center for Cardiovascular Research (DZHK), partner site Munich Heart Alliance, Munich, Germany.,Department of Medical Biochemistry, Subdivision of Experimental Vascular Biology, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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55
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Zhao W, Lu H, Wang X, Ransohoff RM, Zhou L. CX3CR1 deficiency delays acute skeletal muscle injury repair by impairing macrophage functions. FASEB J 2015; 30:380-93. [PMID: 26443824 DOI: 10.1096/fj.14-270090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2015] [Accepted: 09/14/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Adequate inflammatory response predominated by macrophage infiltration is essential to acute skeletal muscle injury repair. The majority of intramuscular macrophages express the chemokine receptor CX3CR1. We studied the role of CX3CR1 in regulating intramuscular macrophage number and function in acute injury repair by using a loss-of-function approach. Muscle injury repair was delayed in CX3CR1(GFP/GFP) mice as compared with wild-type (WT) controls. CX3CR1 was predominantly expressed by macrophages but not by myogenic cells or capillary endothelia cells in injured muscles. Intramuscular macrophage number and subset composition were not altered by CX3CR1 deficiency. Intramuscular macrophage phagocytosis function was impaired by CX3CR1 deficiency as demonstrated by increased number of necrotic fibers (+115%) and percentage of necrotic area (+204%) at 7 d, increased number of intramuscular neutrophils at 3 (+89%) but not 1 d, reduced number of phagocytosing macrophages (-12%) and phagocytosed beads within macrophages (-15%) in CX3CR1(GFP/GFP) mice as compared with WT controls. The mRNA expression of CD36 (-50%), CD14 (-43%), IGF-1 (-53%), and IL-6 (-40%) was reduced in CX3CR1-deficient macrophages as compared with WT controls. We conclude that CX3CR1 is important to acute skeletal muscle injury repair by regulating macrophage phagocytosis function and trophic growth factor production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wanming Zhao
- *Department of Neurology, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA; and Department of Neurosciences, Neuroinflammation Research Center, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Haiyan Lu
- *Department of Neurology, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA; and Department of Neurosciences, Neuroinflammation Research Center, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Xingyu Wang
- *Department of Neurology, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA; and Department of Neurosciences, Neuroinflammation Research Center, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Richard M Ransohoff
- *Department of Neurology, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA; and Department of Neurosciences, Neuroinflammation Research Center, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Lan Zhou
- *Department of Neurology, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA; and Department of Neurosciences, Neuroinflammation Research Center, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
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56
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Shin MS, You S, Kang Y, Lee N, Yoo SA, Park K, Kang KS, Kim SH, Mohanty S, Shaw AC, Montgomery RR, Hwang D, Kang I. DNA Methylation Regulates the Differential Expression of CX3CR1 on Human IL-7Rαlow and IL-7Rαhigh Effector Memory CD8+ T Cells with Distinct Migratory Capacities to the Fractalkine. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2015; 195:2861-9. [PMID: 26276874 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1500877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2015] [Accepted: 07/22/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
DNA methylation is an epigenetic mechanism that modulates gene expression in mammalian cells including T cells. Memory T cells are heterogeneous populations. Human effector memory (EM) CD8(+) T cells in peripheral blood contain two cell subsets with distinct traits that express low and high levels of the IL-7Rα. However, epigenetic mechanisms involved in defining such cellular traits are largely unknown. In this study, we use genome-wide DNA methylation and individual gene expression to show the possible role of DNA methylation in conferring distinct traits of chemotaxis and inflammatory responses in human IL-7Rα(low) and IL-7Rα(high) EM CD8(+) T cells. In particular, IL-7Rα(low) EM CD8(+) T cells had increased expression of CX3CR1 along with decreased DNA methylation in the CX3CR1 gene promoter compared with IL-7Rα(high) EM CD8(+) T cells. Altering the DNA methylation status of the CX3CR1 gene promoter changed its activity and gene expression. IL-7Rα(low) EM CD8(+) T cells had an increased migratory capacity to the CX3CR1 ligand fractalkine compared with IL-7Rα(high) EM CD8(+) T cells, suggesting an important biological outcome of the differential expression of CX3CR1. Moreover, IL-7Rα(low) EM CD8(+) T cells induced fractalkine expression on endothelial cells by producing IFN-γ and TNF-α, forming an autocrine amplification loop. Overall, our study shows the role of DNA methylation in generating unique cellular traits in human IL-7Rα(low) and IL-7Rα(high) EM CD8(+) T cells, including differential expression of CX3CR1, as well as potential biological implications of this differential expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Sun Shin
- Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520
| | - Sungyong You
- Division of Cancer Biology and Therapeutics, Department of Surgery, Samuel Oschin Comprehensive Cancer Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA 90048; Division of Cancer Biology and Therapeutics, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Samuel Oschin Comprehensive Cancer Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA 90048; Division of Cancer Biology and Therapeutics, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Samuel Oschin Comprehensive Cancer Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA 90048
| | - Youna Kang
- Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520
| | - Naeun Lee
- Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520
| | - Seung-Ah Yoo
- Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520
| | - Kieyoung Park
- Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520; Department of Pediatrics, College of Medicine, Ulsan University, Ulsan 680-749, Republic of Korea
| | - Ki Soo Kang
- Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520; Department of Pediatrics, Jeju National University School of Medicine, Jeju 690-756, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang Hyun Kim
- Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520; Department of Microbiology, College of Medicine, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 200-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Subhasis Mohanty
- Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520
| | - Albert C Shaw
- Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520
| | - Ruth R Montgomery
- Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520
| | - Daehee Hwang
- School of Interdisciplinary Bioscience and Bioengineering, POSTECH, Pohang 790-784, Republic of Korea; and Department of New Biology and Center for Plant Aging Research, Institute for Basic Science, Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science & Technology, Daegu, 711-873, Republic of Korea
| | - Insoo Kang
- Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520;
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CX3CR1-expressing inflammatory dendritic cells contribute to the progression of steatohepatitis. Clin Sci (Lond) 2015; 129:797-808. [PMID: 26253086 DOI: 10.1042/cs20150053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2015] [Accepted: 06/25/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Liver monocytes play a major role in the development of NASH (non-alcoholic steatohepatitis). In inflamed tissues, monocytes can differentiate in both macrophages and dendritic cells. In the present study, we investigated the role of moDCs (monocyte-derived inflammatory dendritic cells) in experimental steatohepatitis induced in C57BL/6 mice by feeding on a MCD (methionine/choline-deficient) diet. The evolution of steatohepatitis was characterized by an increase in hepatic CD45+ / CD11b+ myeloid cells displaying the monocyte/macrophage marker F4-80(+). In the early phases (4 weeks of treatment), Ly6C(high)/CD11b(+)/F4-80(+) inflammatory macrophages predominated. However, their frequency did not grow further with the disease progression (8 weeks of treatment), when a 4-fold expansion of CD11b(+)/F4-80(+) cells featuring the fractalkine receptor (CX3CR1) was evident. These CX3CR1+ cells were also characterized by the combined expression of inflammatory monocyte (Ly6C, CD11b) and dendritic cell (CD11c, MHCII) markers as well as by a sustained TNFα (tumour necrosis factor α) production, suggesting monocyte differentiation into inflammatory moDCs. The expansion of TNFα-producing CX3CR1+ moDCs was associated with an elevation in hepatic and circulating TNFα level and with the worsening of parenchymal injury. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) has been shown to interfere with CX3CR1 up-regulation in monocyte-derived cells exposed to pro-inflammatory stimuli. Treating 4-week-MCD-fed mice with the H2S donor NaHS while continuing on the same diet prevented the accumulation of TNFα-producing CX3CR1+ moDCs without interfering with hepatic macrophage functions. Furthermore, NaHS reduced hepatic and circulating TNFα levels and ameliorated transaminase release and parenchymal injury. Altogether, these results show that inflammatory CX3CR1+ moDCs contributed in sustaining inflammation and liver injury during steatohepatitis progression.
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Cytokines in atherosclerosis: Key players in all stages of disease and promising therapeutic targets. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2015; 26:673-85. [PMID: 26005197 PMCID: PMC4671520 DOI: 10.1016/j.cytogfr.2015.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 327] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2015] [Accepted: 04/27/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Atherosclerosis, a chronic inflammatory disorder of the arteries, is responsible for most deaths in westernized societies with numbers increasing at a marked rate in developing countries. The disease is initiated by the activation of the endothelium by various risk factors leading to chemokine-mediated recruitment of immune cells. The uptake of modified lipoproteins by macrophages along with defective cholesterol efflux gives rise to foam cells associated with the fatty streak in the early phase of the disease. As the disease progresses, complex fibrotic plaques are produced as a result of lysis of foam cells, migration and proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells and continued inflammatory response. Such plaques are stabilized by the extracellular matrix produced by smooth muscle cells and destabilized by matrix metalloproteinase from macrophages. Rupture of unstable plaques and subsequent thrombosis leads to clinical complications such as myocardial infarction. Cytokines are involved in all stages of atherosclerosis and have a profound influence on the pathogenesis of this disease. This review will describe our current understanding of the roles of different cytokines in atherosclerosis together with therapeutic approaches aimed at manipulating their actions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ziad Mallat
- From the Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom; and Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, U970, Paris, France.
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Ran L, Yu Q, Zhang S, Xiong F, Cheng J, Yang P, Xu JF, Nie H, Zhong Q, Yang X, Yang F, Gong Q, Kuczma M, Kraj P, Gu W, Ren BX, Wang CY. Cx3cr1 deficiency in mice attenuates hepatic granuloma formation during acute schistosomiasis by enhancing the M2-type polarization of macrophages. Dis Model Mech 2015; 8:691-700. [PMID: 26035381 PMCID: PMC4486856 DOI: 10.1242/dmm.018242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2014] [Accepted: 04/15/2015] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Acute schistosomiasis is characterized by pro-inflammatory responses against tissue- or organ-trapped parasite eggs along with granuloma formation. Here, we describe studies in Cx3cr1−/− mice and demonstrate the role of Cx3cr1 in the pathoetiology of granuloma formation during acute schistosomiasis. Mice deficient in Cx3cr1 were protected from granuloma formation and hepatic injury induced by Schistosoma japonicum eggs, as manifested by reduced body weight loss and attenuated hepatomegaly along with preserved liver function. Notably, S. japonicum infection induced high levels of hepatic Cx3cr1 expression, which was predominantly expressed by infiltrating macrophages. Loss of Cx3cr1 rendered macrophages preferentially towards M2 polarization, which then led to a characteristic switch of the host immune defense from a conventional Th1 to a typical Th2 response during acute schistosomiasis. This immune switch caused by Cx3cr1 deficiency was probably associated with enhanced STAT6/PPAR-γ signaling and increased expression of indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO), an enzyme that promotes M2 polarization of macrophages. Taken together, our data provide evidence suggesting that CX3CR1 could be a viable therapeutic target for treatment of acute schistosomiasis. Highlighted Article: A reduction in CX3CR1 signaling provides protection for mice against pro-inflammatory responses and hepatic granuloma formation during acute schistosomiasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Ran
- Department of Molecular Biology, Medical College of Yangtze University, 1 Nanhuan Road, Jingzhou, Hubei 434023, China The Center for Biomedical Research, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 1095 Jiefang Avenue, Wuhan 430030, China
| | - Qilin Yu
- The Center for Biomedical Research, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 1095 Jiefang Avenue, Wuhan 430030, China
| | - Shu Zhang
- The Center for Biomedical Research, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 1095 Jiefang Avenue, Wuhan 430030, China
| | - Fei Xiong
- The Center for Biomedical Research, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 1095 Jiefang Avenue, Wuhan 430030, China
| | - Jia Cheng
- The Center for Biomedical Research, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 1095 Jiefang Avenue, Wuhan 430030, China
| | - Ping Yang
- The Center for Biomedical Research, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 1095 Jiefang Avenue, Wuhan 430030, China
| | - Jun-Fa Xu
- Department of Clinical Immunology, Institute of Laboratory Medicine, Guangdong Medical College, No. 1 Xincheng Road, Dongguan 523808, China
| | - Hao Nie
- Clinical and Molecular Immunology Research Center, Medical College of Yangtze University, 1 Nanhuan Road, Jingzhou, Hubei 434023, China
| | - Qin Zhong
- Department of Molecular Biology, Medical College of Yangtze University, 1 Nanhuan Road, Jingzhou, Hubei 434023, China
| | - Xueli Yang
- Department of Molecular Biology, Medical College of Yangtze University, 1 Nanhuan Road, Jingzhou, Hubei 434023, China
| | - Fei Yang
- Clinical and Molecular Immunology Research Center, Medical College of Yangtze University, 1 Nanhuan Road, Jingzhou, Hubei 434023, China
| | - Quan Gong
- Department of Immunology, Medical College of Yangtze University, 1 Nanhuan Road, Jingzhou, Hubei 434023, China
| | - Michal Kuczma
- The Center for Biotechnology and Genomic Medicine, Georgia Regents University, 1120 15th Street, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
| | - Piotr Kraj
- The Center for Biotechnology and Genomic Medicine, Georgia Regents University, 1120 15th Street, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
| | - Weikuan Gu
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery and BME, Campbell-Clinic, University of Tennessee, Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, USA
| | - Bo-Xu Ren
- Department of Molecular Biology, Medical College of Yangtze University, 1 Nanhuan Road, Jingzhou, Hubei 434023, China
| | - Cong-Yi Wang
- Department of Molecular Biology, Medical College of Yangtze University, 1 Nanhuan Road, Jingzhou, Hubei 434023, China The Center for Biomedical Research, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 1095 Jiefang Avenue, Wuhan 430030, China Department of Clinical Immunology, Institute of Laboratory Medicine, Guangdong Medical College, No. 1 Xincheng Road, Dongguan 523808, China
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Maranhão RC, Tavares ER. Advances in non-invasive drug delivery for atherosclerotic heart disease. Expert Opin Drug Deliv 2015; 12:1135-47. [DOI: 10.1517/17425247.2015.999663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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Abstract
Atherosclerosis is an inflammatory disease of the vessel wall characterized by activation of the innate immune system, with macrophages as the main players, as well as the adaptive immune system, characterized by a Th1-dominant immune response. Cytokines play a major role in the initiation and regulation of inflammation. In recent years, many studies have investigated the role of these molecules in experimental models of atherosclerosis. While some cytokines such as TNF or IFNγ clearly had atherogenic effects, others such as IL-10 were found to be atheroprotective. However, studies investigating the different cytokines in experimental atherosclerosis revealed that the cytokine system is complex with both disease stage-dependent and site-specific effects. In this review, we strive to provide an overview of the main cytokines involved in atherosclerosis and to shed light on their individual role during atherogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pascal J H Kusters
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Esther Lutgens
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Academic Medical Center, L01-146.1, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
- Institute for Cardiovascular Prevention (IPEK), Ludwig Maximilians University (LMU), Munich, Germany.
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Ibáñez L, Velli PS, Font R, Jaén A, Royo J, Irigoyen D, Cairó M, De la Sierra A, Arranz MJ, Gallardo D, Dalmau D. HIV-infection, atherosclerosis and the inflammatory pathway: candidate gene study in a Spanish HIV-infected population. PLoS One 2014; 9:e112279. [PMID: 25383745 PMCID: PMC4226484 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0112279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2014] [Accepted: 10/03/2014] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Higher prevalence of atherosclerosis and higher cardiovascular risk is observed in HIV-infected individuals. The biological mechanisms underlying these processes are unclear. Several studies have implicated genetic variants in the inflammatory genes in cardiovascular disease and in HIV natural course infection. Methods & Findings In this study we have tested the possible association between genetic variants in several inflammatory genes and asymptomatic cardiovascular disease measured by carotid intima media thickness (cIMT) and atherosclerotic plaque presence as dependent variables in 213 HIV-infected individuals. A total of 101 genetic variants in 25 candidate genes have been genotyped. Results were analyzed using Plink and SPSS statistical packages. We have found several polymorphisms in the genes ALOX5 (rs2115819 p = 0.009), ALOX5AP (rs9578196 p = 0.007; rs4769873 p = 0.004 and rs9315051 p = 0.0004), CX3CL1 (rs4151117 p = 0.040 and rs614230 p = 0.015) and CCL5 (rs3817655 p = 0.018 and rs2107538 p = 0.018) associated with atherosclerotic plaque. cIMT mean has been associated with CRP (1130864 p = 0.0003 and rs1800947 p = 0.008), IL1RN (rs380092 p = 0.002) and ALOX5AP (rs3885907 p = 0.02) genetic variants. Conclusions In this study we have found modest associations between genetic variants in several inflammatory genes and atherosclerotic plaque or cIMT. Nevertheless, our study adds evidence to the association between inflammatory pathway genetic variants and the atherosclerotic disease in HIV-infected individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Ibáñez
- Fundació Docència i Recerca MútuaTerrassa, Terrassa, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Pablo Sebastián Velli
- Hospital Universitari MútuaTerrassa, Terrassa, Catalonia, Spain
- Universitat de Barcelona, Terrassa, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Roser Font
- Hospital Universitari MútuaTerrassa, Terrassa, Catalonia, Spain
- Universitat de Barcelona, Terrassa, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Angeles Jaén
- Fundació Docència i Recerca MútuaTerrassa, Terrassa, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Josep Royo
- Hospital Universitari MútuaTerrassa, Terrassa, Catalonia, Spain
- Universitat de Barcelona, Terrassa, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Daniel Irigoyen
- Hospital Universitari MútuaTerrassa, Terrassa, Catalonia, Spain
- Universitat de Barcelona, Terrassa, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Mireia Cairó
- Hospital Universitari MútuaTerrassa, Terrassa, Catalonia, Spain
- Universitat de Barcelona, Terrassa, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Alejandro De la Sierra
- Hospital Universitari MútuaTerrassa, Terrassa, Catalonia, Spain
- Universitat de Barcelona, Terrassa, Catalonia, Spain
| | | | - David Gallardo
- Servei Veterinari de Genètica Molecular (SVGM) - Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Catalonia, Spain
- * E-mail:
| | - David Dalmau
- Fundació Docència i Recerca MútuaTerrassa, Terrassa, Catalonia, Spain
- Hospital Universitari MútuaTerrassa, Terrassa, Catalonia, Spain
- Universitat de Barcelona, Terrassa, Catalonia, Spain
- * E-mail:
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White GE, McNeill E, Channon KM, Greaves DR. Fractalkine promotes human monocyte survival via a reduction in oxidative stress. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2014; 34:2554-62. [PMID: 25359863 PMCID: PMC4236230 DOI: 10.1161/atvbaha.114.304717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Supplemental Digital Content is available in the text. Objective— The CX3C chemokine fractalkine (CX3CL1) has a critical role in the development of atherogenesis because apolipoprotein-E–deficient mice lacking CX3CL1 or its receptor CX3CR1 develop smaller plaques and polymorphisms in CX3CR1 are associated with altered risk of cardiovascular disease. CX3CR1 is found on numerous cell types involved in atherogenesis but seems to have a key role in monocyte function. We aimed to elucidate the role of CX3CL1 in human monocyte survival and determine the mechanism by which CX3CL1 spares monocytes from apoptosis. Approach and Results— Primary human monocytes were prepared from healthy donors and subjected to serum-starvation to induce spontaneous apoptosis. The addition of CX3CL1, but not other chemokines tested, promoted monocyte survival in a dose-dependent manner with full-length CX3CL1 (including the mucin stalk) having a more potent antiapoptotic effect than chemokine-domain CX3CL1. The prosurvival effect of CX3CL1 was evident in both monocyte subsets although nonclassical monocytes were more prone to spontaneous apoptosis. In addition, we found that the effect of CX3CL1 was independent of CX3CR1 genotype. Serum-starvation increased the level of intracellular reactive oxygen species, and this was reduced by the addition of CX3CL1. Inhibition of oxidative stress with an antioxidant prevented monocyte apoptosis, indicating that this is the dominant mechanism of cell death targeted by CX3CL1. Conclusions— CX3CL1 has a substantial and highly reproducible antiapoptotic effect on human monocytes, via a mechanism involving a reduction in oxidative stress. This suggests that CX3CL1 is likely to play a key role in human atherogenesis and may provide a novel therapeutic target in cardiovascular disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gemma E White
- From the Sir William Dunn School of Pathology (G.E.W., D.R.G.), Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, British Heart Foundation Centre of Research Excellence, John Radcliffe Hospital (E.M., K.M.C.), and Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics (E.M., K.M.C.), University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Eileen McNeill
- From the Sir William Dunn School of Pathology (G.E.W., D.R.G.), Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, British Heart Foundation Centre of Research Excellence, John Radcliffe Hospital (E.M., K.M.C.), and Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics (E.M., K.M.C.), University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Keith M Channon
- From the Sir William Dunn School of Pathology (G.E.W., D.R.G.), Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, British Heart Foundation Centre of Research Excellence, John Radcliffe Hospital (E.M., K.M.C.), and Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics (E.M., K.M.C.), University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - David R Greaves
- From the Sir William Dunn School of Pathology (G.E.W., D.R.G.), Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, British Heart Foundation Centre of Research Excellence, John Radcliffe Hospital (E.M., K.M.C.), and Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics (E.M., K.M.C.), University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom.
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65
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Cimato TR, Palka BA. Fractalkine (CX3CL1), GM-CSF and VEGF-a levels are reduced by statins in adult patients. Clin Transl Med 2014; 3:14. [PMID: 24995121 PMCID: PMC4067646 DOI: 10.1186/2001-1326-3-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2013] [Accepted: 06/10/2014] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Fractalkine (CX3CL1) promotes migration and adhesion of lymphocytes and monocytes to inflamed tissues. Prior studies show a role for CX3CL1 in atherosclerosis. The relationship between inflammatory cytokines, cholesterol, and CX3CL1 levels in human subjects without known coronary artery disease is not well characterized. The goal of our study was to assess baseline CX3CL1 levels, and after modulation of cholesterol levels by statins to determine if CX3CL1 is linked to cholesterol levels or inflammatory stimuli. METHODS We performed a blinded, randomized hypothesis generating study in human subjects without known coronary artery disease treated sequentially with three statins of differing potencies. Fractalkine (CX3CL1), GM-CSF, VEGF-A, other chemokines, and lipid levels were measured. Mechanistic studies of CX3CL1 induction by LDL cholesterol and TNFα in cultured human endothelial cells were performed using real-time PCR. RESULTS Therapy with statins reduced total and LDL cholesterol levels as expected. CX3CL1 levels were significantly reduced from no statin control levels (89.9 ± 18.5 pg/mL) after treatment with atorvastatin (60.0 ± 7.8 pg/mL), pravastatin (54.2 ± 7.0 pg/mL) and rosuvastatin (65.6 ± 7.3 pg/mL) (χ (2)(2) = 17.4, p ≤ 0.001). Cholesterol is not a known regulator of CX3CL1. We found GM-CSF (r(2) = 0.524; p < 0.005) and VEGF-A (r(2) = 0.4; p < 0.005) levels were highly and positively correlated with CX3CL1. Total (r(2) = 0.086) and LDL cholesterol (r(2) = 0.059) levels weakly correlated with CX3CL1 levels. Finally, we tested whether LDL cholesterol could induce CX3CL1, GM-CSF, and VEGF-A in human endothelial cells, versus TNFα. LDL cholesterol alone resulted in small, non-significant increases in CX3CL1 and GM-CSF, while TNFα resulted in > 10-fold induction. CONCLUSIONS Our findings suggest that while statins suppress CX3CL1 levels, inflammatory cytokines may be the major regulator of CX3CL1 levels rather than cholesterol itself. Additional studies in a larger patient population are needed to confirm these findings, determine if CX3CL1 levels reflect inflammation levels, and potentially add to standard risk factors in prediction of atherosclerotic disease events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas R Cimato
- Department of Medicine/Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Clinical and Translational Research Center, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14203, USA
| | - Beth A Palka
- Department of Medicine/Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Clinical and Translational Research Center, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14203, USA
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Fadini GP, Ciciliot S. Vascular smooth muscle cells and monocyte–macrophages accomplice in the accelerated atherosclerosis of insulin resistance states. Cardiovasc Res 2014; 103:194-5. [DOI: 10.1093/cvr/cvu144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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Role of fractalkine/CX3CL1 and its receptor in the pathogenesis of inflammatory and malignant diseases with emphasis on B cell malignancies. Mediators Inflamm 2014; 2014:480941. [PMID: 24799766 PMCID: PMC3985314 DOI: 10.1155/2014/480941] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2013] [Revised: 02/26/2014] [Accepted: 03/05/2014] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Fractalkine/CX3CL1, the only member of the CX3C chemokine family, exists as a membrane-anchored molecule as well as in soluble form, each mediating different biological activities. It is constitutively expressed in many hematopoietic and nonhematopoietic tissues such as endothelial and epithelial cells, lymphocytes, neurons, microglial osteoblasts. The biological activities of CX3CL1 are mediated by CX3CR1, that is expressed on different cell types such as NK cells, CD14+ monocytes, cytotoxic effector T cells, B cells, neurons, microglia, smooth muscle cells, and tumor cells. The CX3CL1/CX3CR1 axis is involved in the pathogenesis of several inflammatory cancer including various B cell malignancies. In tumors the interaction between cancer cells and cellular microenvironment creates a context that may promote tumor growth, increase tumor survival, and facilitate metastasis. Therefore the role of the CX3CL1/CX3CR1 has attracted interest as to the development of potential therapeutic approaches. Here we review the different effects of the CX3CL1/CX3CR1 axis in several inflammatory and neurodegenerative diseases and in cancer, with emphasis on human B cell lymphomas.
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Abstract
Chemokines play important roles in atherosclerotic vascular disease. Expressed by not only cells of the vessel wall but also emigrated leukocytes, chemokines were initially discovered to direct leukocytes to sites of inflammation. However, chemokines can also exert multiple functions beyond cell recruitment. Here, we discuss novel and recently emerging aspects of chemokines and their involvement in atherosclerosis. While reviewing newly identified roles of chemokines and their receptors in monocyte and neutrophil recruitment during atherogenesis and atheroregression, we also revisit homeostatic functions of chemokines, including their roles in cell homeostasis and foam cell formation. The functional diversity of chemokines in atherosclerosis warrants a clear-cut mechanistic dissection and stage-specific assessment to better appreciate the full scope of their actions in vascular inflammation and to identify pathways that harbor the potential for a therapeutic targeting of chemokines in atherosclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alma Zernecke
- From the Institute of Clinical Biochemistry and Pathobiochemistry, University Hospital Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany (A.Z.); Department of Vascular Surgery, Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University, Munich, Germany (A.Z.); DZHK (German Centre for Cardiovascular Research), partner site Munich Heart Alliance, Munich, Germany (A.Z., C.W.); and Institute for Cardiovascular Prevention, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany (C.W.)
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