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Dasgupta SK, Le A, Vijayan KV, Thiagarajan P. Dasatinib inhibits actin fiber reorganization and promotes endothelial cell permeability through RhoA-ROCK pathway. Cancer Med 2017; 6:809-818. [PMID: 28316141 PMCID: PMC5387130 DOI: 10.1002/cam4.1019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2016] [Revised: 12/13/2016] [Accepted: 12/29/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Treatment with dasatinib, a tyrosine kinase inhibitor, is associated with edema, pleural effusion, and pulmonary edema. We investigated the effect of dasatinib on the barrier function of human microvascular endothelial cells‐1 (HMEC‐1) in vitro and in vivo. The permeability of HMEC‐1 to fluorescein isothiocyante (FITC)‐dextran increased in Transwell chambers within 5 min following the addition of therapeutic concentrations of dasatinib. The change in permeability was associated with increased activation of RhoA GTPase and its effector Rho‐associated coiled‐coil kinase 1(ROCK1). RhoA inhibitor C3 transferase almost completely inhibited dasatinib‐induced increase in permeability. Under similar conditions, imatinib had no effect on permeability or activation of RhoA. Since integrin‐induced cell spreading suppresses RhoA activation, we examined the effect of dasatinib on cell spreading on fibronectin substrate. Dasatinib impaired endothelial cell spreading in a concentration‐dependent manner and induced disorganization of actin fibers. Tyrosine kinases play an essential role in transmitting signals from integrins to RhoA and we examined tyrosine phosphorylation of several cytoskeletal proteins. Dasatinib markedly inhibited tyrosine phosphorylation of p130 Crk‐associated substrate (p130cas), paxillin and vinculin. These results suggest that the inhibition of tyrosine phosphorylation of the focal adhesion plaque components by dasatinib may alter the assembly of actin fibers resulting in the activation of RhoA/ROCK pathway. Consistent with these findings, dasatinib‐induced increase in the permeability was blocked by ROCK inhibitor y27632. In vivo administration of y27632, significantly inhibited the dasatinib‐induced extravasation of Evans blue in mice and dasatinib‐induced increase in microvascular permeability was attenuated in ROCK1‐deficient mice. These findings suggest that ROCK inhibitors could serve as therapeutic modalities to ameliorate the dasatinib‐induced pulmonary changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Swapan K Dasgupta
- Center for Translational Research on Inflammatory Diseases (CTRID), Michael E. DeBakey Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Department of Pathology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas
| | - Anhquyen Le
- Center for Translational Research on Inflammatory Diseases (CTRID), Michael E. DeBakey Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Department of Pathology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas
| | - K Vinod Vijayan
- Center for Translational Research on Inflammatory Diseases (CTRID), Michael E. DeBakey Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Department of Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas
| | - Perumal Thiagarajan
- Center for Translational Research on Inflammatory Diseases (CTRID), Michael E. DeBakey Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Department of Pathology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas.,Center for Translational Research on Inflammatory Diseases (CTRID), Michael E. DeBakey Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Department of Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas
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52
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Letsiou E, Sammani S, Wang H, Belvitch P, Dudek SM. Parkin regulates lipopolysaccharide-induced proinflammatory responses in acute lung injury. Transl Res 2017; 181:71-82. [PMID: 27693468 DOI: 10.1016/j.trsl.2016.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2016] [Revised: 08/18/2016] [Accepted: 09/03/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is a serious condition resulting from direct or indirect lung injury that is associated with high mortality and morbidity. A key biological event in the pathogenesis of the acute lung injury (ALI) that causes acute respiratory distress syndrome is activation of the lung endothelium cells (ECs), which is triggered by a variety of inflammatory insults leading to barrier disruption and excessive accumulation of neutrophils. Recently, we demonstrated that imatinib protects against lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced EC activation by inhibiting c-Abl kinase. In the present study, we explored the role of parkin, a novel c-Abl substrate, in ALI. Parkin is an E3 ubiquitin ligase originally characterized in the pathogenesis of Parkinson disease; however, its potential role in acute inflammatory processes and lung EC function remains largely unknown. Using parkin deficient (PARK2-/-) mice, we now demonstrate that parkin mediates LPS-induced ALI. After LPS, PARK2-/- mice have reduced total protein and cell levels in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) compared to wild type. Moreover, in LPS-treated PARK2-/- lungs, the sequestration and activation of neutrophils and release of inflammatory cytokines (interleukin 6 [IL-6], tumor necrosis factor alpha [TNF-α]) are significantly reduced. The BAL levels of soluble VCAM-1 and ICAM-1 are also decreased in LPS-treated PARK2-/- mice compared to wild type. In cultured human lung endothelial cells, downregulation of parkin by small interfering RNA decreases LPS-induced VCAM-1 expression, IL-8 and IL-6 secretion, and NF-kB phosphorylation. These results suggest a previously unidentified role of parkin in mediating endotoxin-induced endothelial proinflammatory signaling and indicate that it may play a critical role in acute inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleftheria Letsiou
- Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, Sleep, and Allergy, University of Illinois, Chicago, Ill.
| | - Saad Sammani
- Arizona Health Sciences Center, University of Arizona, Ariz
| | - Huashan Wang
- Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, Sleep, and Allergy, University of Illinois, Chicago, Ill
| | - Patrick Belvitch
- Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, Sleep, and Allergy, University of Illinois, Chicago, Ill
| | - Steven M Dudek
- Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, Sleep, and Allergy, University of Illinois, Chicago, Ill
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53
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Belvitch P, Brown ME, Brinley BN, Letsiou E, Rizzo AN, Garcia JGN, Dudek SM. The ARP 2/3 complex mediates endothelial barrier function and recovery. Pulm Circ 2017; 7:200-210. [PMID: 28680579 PMCID: PMC5448540 DOI: 10.1086/690307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2016] [Accepted: 11/23/2016] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Pulmonary endothelial cell (EC) barrier dysfunction and recovery is critical to the pathophysiology of acute respiratory distress syndrome. Cytoskeletal and subsequent cell membrane dynamics play a key mechanistic role in determination of EC barrier integrity. Here, we characterizAQe the actin related protein 2/3 (Arp 2/3) complex, a regulator of peripheral branched actin polymerization, in human pulmonary EC barrier function through studies of transendothelial electrical resistance (TER), intercellular gap formation, peripheral cytoskeletal structures and lamellipodia. Compared to control, Arp 2/3 inhibition with the small molecule inhibitor CK-666 results in a reduction of baseline barrier function (1,241 ± 53 vs 988 ± 64 ohm; p < 0.01), S1P-induced barrier enhancement and delayed recovery of barrier function after thrombin (143 ± 14 vs 93 ± 6 min; p < 0.01). Functional changes of Arp 2/3 inhibition on barrier integrity are associated temporally with increased intercellular gap area at baseline (0.456 ± 0.02 vs 0.299 ± 0.02; p < 0.05) and thirty minutes after thrombin (0.885 ± 0.03 vs 0.754 ± 0.03; p < 0.05). Immunofluorescent microscopy reveals reduced lamellipodia formation after S1P and during thrombin recovery in Arp 2/3 inhibited cells. Individual lamellipodia demonstrate reduced depth following Arp 2/3 inhibition vs vehicle at baseline (1.83 ± 0.41 vs 2.55 ± 0.46 µm; p < 0.05) and thirty minutes after S1P treatment (1.53 ± 0.37 vs 2.09 ± 0.36 µm; p < 0.05). These results establish a critical role for Arp 2/3 activity in determination of pulmonary endothelial barrier function and recovery through formation of EC lamellipodia and closure of intercellular gaps.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Belvitch
- Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, Sleep, and Allergy, University of Illinois Hospital and Health Science System, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Mary E Brown
- Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, Sleep, and Allergy, University of Illinois Hospital and Health Science System, Chicago, IL, USA
| | | | - Eleftheria Letsiou
- Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, Sleep, and Allergy, University of Illinois Hospital and Health Science System, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Alicia N Rizzo
- Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, Sleep, and Allergy, University of Illinois Hospital and Health Science System, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Joe G N Garcia
- University of Arizona Health Sciences Center, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Steven M Dudek
- Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, Sleep, and Allergy, University of Illinois Hospital and Health Science System, Chicago, IL, USA
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophia Häfner
- Postdoctoral fellow, University of Copenhagen, BRIC Biotech Research & Innovation Centre, Lund Group, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark.
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55
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Protective Effects of Imatinib on Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury in Rat Lung. Ann Thorac Surg 2016; 102:1717-1724. [DOI: 10.1016/j.athoracsur.2016.05.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2016] [Revised: 05/05/2016] [Accepted: 05/09/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Beard RS, Yang X, Meegan JE, Overstreet JW, Yang CG, Elliott JA, Reynolds JJ, Cha BJ, Pivetti CD, Mitchell DA, Wu MH, Deschenes RJ, Yuan SY. Palmitoyl acyltransferase DHHC21 mediates endothelial dysfunction in systemic inflammatory response syndrome. Nat Commun 2016; 7:12823. [PMID: 27653213 PMCID: PMC5036164 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms12823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2015] [Accepted: 08/04/2016] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Endothelial dysfunction is a hallmark of systemic inflammatory response underlying multiple organ failure. Here we report a novel function of DHHC-containing palmitoyl acyltransferases (PATs) in mediating endothelial inflammation. Pharmacological inhibition of PATs attenuates barrier leakage and leucocyte adhesion induced by endothelial junction hyperpermeability and ICAM-1 expression during inflammation. Among 11 DHHCs detected in vascular endothelium, DHHC21 is required for barrier response. Mice with DHHC21 function deficiency (Zdhhc21dep/dep) exhibit marked resistance to injury, characterized by reduced plasma leakage, decreased leucocyte adhesion and ameliorated lung pathology, culminating in improved survival. Endothelial cells from Zdhhc21dep/dep display blunted barrier dysfunction and leucocyte adhesion, whereas leucocytes from these mice did not show altered adhesiveness. Furthermore, inflammation enhances PLCβ1 palmitoylation and signalling activity, effects significantly reduced in Zdhhc21dep/dep and rescued by DHHC21 overexpression. Likewise, overexpression of wild-type, not mutant, PLCβ1 augments barrier dysfunction. Altogether, these data suggest the involvement of DHHC21-mediated PLCβ1 palmitoylation in endothelial inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard S. Beard
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Physiology, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33612, USA
| | - Xiaoyuan Yang
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Physiology, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33612, USA
| | - Jamie E. Meegan
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Physiology, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33612, USA
| | - Jonathan W. Overstreet
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Physiology, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33612, USA
| | - Clement G.Y. Yang
- Department of Surgery, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33612, USA
| | - John A. Elliott
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Physiology, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33612, USA
| | - Jason J. Reynolds
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Physiology, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33612, USA
| | - Byeong J. Cha
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Physiology, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33612, USA
| | - Christopher D. Pivetti
- Department of Surgery, School of Medicine, University of California at Davis, Sacramento, California 95817, USA
| | - David A. Mitchell
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33612, USA
| | - Mack H. Wu
- Department of Surgery, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33612, USA
- James A. Haley Veterans' Hospital, Tampa, Florida 33612, USA
| | - Robert J. Deschenes
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33612, USA
| | - Sarah Y. Yuan
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Physiology, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33612, USA
- Department of Surgery, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33612, USA
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Yin JT, Wan B, Liu DD, Wan SX, Fu HY, Wan Y, Zhang H, Chen Y. Emodin alleviates lung injury in rats with sepsis. J Surg Res 2016; 202:308-14. [PMID: 27229105 DOI: 10.1016/j.jss.2015.12.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2015] [Revised: 11/25/2015] [Accepted: 12/29/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Sepsis has high morbidity and mortality. The aim of this study was to investigate whether emodin, an anthraquinone derived from Chinese herb, exerts protective effects on lung injury in rat model of sepsis. MATERIALS AND METHODS Forty-eight male Wistar rats were randomly divided into four groups (n = 12): normal group, sham-operated group, cecal ligation and puncture (CLP) model group, and emodin-treated group. Saline or emodin (25 mg/kg) was injected intraperitoneally 0.5 h before CLP. The rats were sacrificed 48 h after CLP. Lung wet-to-dry weight ratio and pathologic changes in the lung were examined, the contents of malondialdehyde and myeloperoxidase in lung tissue were detected, serum tumor necrosis factor alpha and interleukin 6 levels were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, and the phosphorylation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK) was detected by Western blot analysis. RESULTS Compared with control group, CLP group exhibited higher wet-to-dry weight ratio and water content in the lung (P < 0.01), but these indexes were reduced and pathologic changes in the lung were relieved in the emodin-treated group. In addition, lung malondialdehyde and myeloperoxidase contents, serum levels of tumor necrosis factor alpha and interleukin 6, and phosphorylation of p38 MAPK increased in the CLP group but decreased in the emodin-treated group (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS Emodin exerts protective effects on lung injury in septic rats, which is related to the inhibition of p38 MAPK pathway and the reduction of oxidative stress and inflammation response during sepsis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiang-Tao Yin
- Department of ICU, Affiliated Hospital of Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
| | - Bing Wan
- Department of ICU, Affiliated Hospital of Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China.
| | - Da-Dong Liu
- Department of ICU, Affiliated Hospital of Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
| | - Sheng-Xia Wan
- Department of ICU, Affiliated Hospital of Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
| | - Hai-Yan Fu
- Department of General Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
| | - Yin Wan
- Clinical laboratory, Affiliated Hospital of Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
| | - Hao Zhang
- Emergency Medicine Center, Affiliated Hospital of Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
| | - Yikun Chen
- Emergency Medicine Center, Affiliated Hospital of Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
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Stephens RS, Johnston L, Servinsky L, Kim BS, Damarla M. The tyrosine kinase inhibitor imatinib prevents lung injury and death after intravenous LPS in mice. Physiol Rep 2015; 3:3/11/e12589. [PMID: 26620257 PMCID: PMC4673626 DOI: 10.14814/phy2.12589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Severe sepsis and septic shock are frequent causes of the acute respiratory distress syndrome, and important sources of human mortality. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a component of Gram-negative bacterial cell walls, plays a major role in the pathogenesis of severe sepsis and septic shock. LPS exposure induces the production of harmful reactive oxygen species, and the resultant oxidant injury has been implicated in the pathogenesis of both severe sepsis and ARDS. We previously showed that the tyrosine kinase inhibitor imatinib increases lung endothelial antioxidant enzymes and protects against pulmonary endothelial antioxidant injury. In the present study, we tested the hypothesis that imatinib would protect against lung injury and systemic inflammation caused by intravenous LPS in an intact mouse model of endotoxemia mimicking early sepsis. We found that intravenous LPS induced a significant increase in the activity of lung xanthine oxidoreductase (XOR), an enzyme which is a major source of reactive oxygen species and implicated in the pathogenesis of acute lung injury. Imatinib had no effect of LPS-induced XOR activity. However, pretreatment of mice with imatinib increased lung catalase activity and decreased intravenous LPS-induced lung oxidant injury as measured by γ-H2AX, a marker of oxidant-induced DNA damage, lung apoptosis, and pulmonary edema. Imatinib also attenuated systemic cytokine expression after intravenous LPS exposure. Finally, imatinib completely prevented mortality in an in vivo, intravenous LPS mouse model of endotoxemia and lung injury. These results support the testing of imatinib as a novel pharmacologic agent in the treatment of Gram-negative sepsis and sepsis-induced ARDS.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Scott Stephens
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Laura Johnston
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Laura Servinsky
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Bo S Kim
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Mahendra Damarla
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland
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Zumla A, Azhar EI, Arabi Y, Alotaibi B, Rao M, McCloskey B, Petersen E, Maeurer M. Host-directed therapies for improving poor treatment outcomes associated with the middle east respiratory syndrome coronavirus infections. Int J Infect Dis 2015; 40:71-4. [PMID: 26365771 PMCID: PMC7128983 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijid.2015.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Three years after its first discovery in Jeddah Saudi Arabia, the novel zoonotic pathogen of humans, the Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV) continues to be a major threat to global health security.(1) Sporadic community acquired cases of MERS continue to be reported from the Middle East. The recent nosocomial outbreaks in hospitals in Seoul, Korea and at the National Guard Hospital in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia indicate the epidemic potential of MERS-CoV. Currently there are no effective anti-MERS-CoV anti-viral agents or therapeutics and MERS is associated with a high mortality rate (40%) in hospitalised patients. A large proportion of MERS patients who die have a range of pulmonary pathology ranging from pneumonia to adult respiratory distress syndrome with multi-organ failure, compounded by co-morbidities, reflecting a precarious balance of interactions between the host-immune system and MERS-CoV. Whilst we wait for new MERS-CoV specific drugs, therapeutics and vaccines to be developed, there is a need to advance a range of Host-Directed Therapies. A range of HDTs are available, including commonly used drugs with good safety profiles, which could augment host innate and adaptive immune mechanisms to MERS-CoV, modulate excessive inflammation and reduce lung tissue destruction. We discuss the rationale and potential of using Host-Directed Therapies for improving the poor treatment outcomes associated with MERS. Carefully designed randomized controlled trials will be needed to determine whether HDTs could benefit patients with MERS. The recurrent outbreaks of MERS-CoV infections at hospitals in the Middle East present unique opportunities to conduct randomized clinical trials. The time has come for a more coordinated global response to MERS and a multidisciplinary global MERS-CoV response group is required to take forward priority research agendas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alimuddin Zumla
- Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London, and NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, UCL Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom; Special Infectious Agents Unit, King Fahd Medical Research Centre, and Medical Laboratory Technology Department, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
| | - Esam I Azhar
- Special Infectious Agents Unit, King Fahd Medical Research Centre, and Medical Laboratory Technology Department, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
| | - Yaseen Arabi
- Intensive Care Department, King Saud Bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences, King Abdullah International Medical Research Center, Riyadh, 11426, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
| | - Badriah Alotaibi
- Global Center for Mass Gatherings Medicine, Ministry of Health, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
| | - Martin Rao
- Division of Therapeutic Immunology, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, and Centre for Allogeneic Stem Cell Transplantation, Karolinska University Hospital Huddinge, Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - Brian McCloskey
- Global Health Department, Public Health England, London, United Kingdom.
| | - Eskild Petersen
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Clinical Microbiology, Aarhus University Hospital Skejby, Aarhus, Denmark.
| | - Markus Maeurer
- Division of Therapeutic Immunology, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, and Centre for Allogeneic Stem Cell Transplantation, Karolinska University Hospital Huddinge, Stockholm, Sweden.
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Antoniu SA. Fresh from the designation pipeline: orphan drugs designated in the European Union (November – December 2014). Expert Opin Orphan Drugs 2015. [DOI: 10.1517/21678707.2015.1045876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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