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Subramanian M, Thorp E, Hansson GK, Tabas I. Treg-mediated suppression of atherosclerosis requires MYD88 signaling in DCs. J Clin Invest 2012; 123:179-88. [PMID: 23257360 DOI: 10.1172/jci64617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2012] [Accepted: 10/25/2012] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
TLR activation on CD11c+ DCs triggers DC maturation, which is critical for T cell activation. Given the expansion of CD11c+ DCs during the progression of atherosclerosis and the key role of T cell activation in atherogenesis, we sought to understand the role of TLR signaling in CD11c+ DCs in atherosclerosis. To this end, we used a mouse model in which a key TLR adaptor involved in DC maturation, MYD88, is deleted in CD11c+ DCs. We transplanted bone marrow containing Myd88-deficient CD11c+ DCs into Western diet-fed LDL receptor knockout mice and found that the transplanted mice had decreased activation of effector T cells in the periphery as well as decreased infiltration of both effector T cells and Tregs in atherosclerotic lesions. Surprisingly, the net effect was an increase in atherosclerotic lesion size due to an increase in the content of myeloid-derived inflammatory cells. The mechanism involves increased lesional monocyte recruitment associated with loss of Treg-mediated suppression of MCP-1. Thus, the dominant effect of MYD88 signaling in CD11c+ DCs in the setting of atherosclerosis is to promote the development of atheroprotective Tregs. In the absence of MYD88 signaling in CD11c+ DCs, the loss of this protective Treg response trumps the loss of proatherogenic T effector cell activation.
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Wu C, Gong Y, Yuan J, Zhang W, Zhao G, Li H, Sun A, Zou Y, Ge J. microRNA-181a represses ox-LDL-stimulated inflammatory response in dendritic cell by targeting c-Fos. J Lipid Res 2012; 53:2355-63. [PMID: 22956783 PMCID: PMC3466004 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.m028878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Oxidized LDL (ox-LDL) activates dendritic cells (DCs), thereby initiating
inflammation responses in atherosclerosis, yet the modulatory mechanisms remain
unclear. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are important regulators for DC functions. This study
evaluated the regulation by miRNAs of the ox-LDL-induced DC immune response. In
CD11c+ DCs from ApoE-deficient mice with hyperlipidemia, microRNA
miR-181a was significantly up-regulated. In cultured bone marrow-derived DCs (BMDCs),
ox-LDL promoted DC maturation and up-regulated miR-181a expression. Abundance of
miR-181a attenuated ox-LDL-induced CD83 and CD40 expression, inhibited the secretion
of interleukin (IL)-6 and TNF-α, and up-regulated IL-10, an important
anti-inflammatory cytokine that was inhibited by ox-LDL. Inhibition of the endogenous
miR-181a reversed the effects on CD83 and CD40 as well as the effects on IL-6 and
TNF-α. The putative target genes of miR-181a were evaluated by gene ontology
assessment, and the c-Fos-mediated inflammation pathway was
identified. miR-181a targeted the 3′ untranslated region of
c-Fos mRNA by luciferase experiments. Thus, abundance of miR-181a
reduced c-Fos protein, whereas inhibition of miR-181a increased
c-Fos protein in BMDCs. We therefore suggest that miR-181a
attenuates ox-LDL-stimulated immune inflammation responses by targeting
c-Fos in DCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chaoneng Wu
- Shanghai Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
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53
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Koltsova EK, Garcia Z, Chodaczek G, Landau M, McArdle S, Scott SR, von Vietinghoff S, Galkina E, Miller YI, Acton ST, Ley K. Dynamic T cell-APC interactions sustain chronic inflammation in atherosclerosis. J Clin Invest 2012; 122:3114-26. [PMID: 22886300 DOI: 10.1172/jci61758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 179] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2011] [Accepted: 06/21/2012] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Atherosclerosis is a chronic inflammatory disease of large and medium-sized arteries characterized by leukocyte accumulation in the vessel wall. Both innate and adaptive immune responses contribute to atherogenesis, but the identity of atherosclerosis-relevant antigens and the role of antigen presentation in this disease remain poorly characterized. We developed live-cell imaging of explanted aortas to compare the behavior and role of APCs in normal and atherosclerotic mice. We found that CD4+ T cells were capable of interacting with fluorescently labeled (CD11c-YFP+) APCs in the aortic wall in the presence, but not the absence, of cognate antigen. In atherosclerosis-prone Apoe-/-CD11c-YFP+ mice, APCs extensively interacted with CD4+ T cells in the aorta, leading to cell activation and proliferation as well as secretion of IFN-γ and TNF-α. These cytokines enhanced uptake of oxidized and minimally modified LDL by macrophages. We conclude that antigen presentation by APCs to CD4+ T cells in the arterial wall causes local T cell activation and production of proinflammatory cytokines, which promote atherosclerosis by maintaining chronic inflammation and inducing foam cell formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ekaterina K Koltsova
- Division of Inflammation Biology, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology (LIAI), La Jolla, California 92037, USA
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54
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Zeng X, Wang T, Zhu C, Xing X, Ye Y, Lai X, Song B, Zeng Y. Topographical and biological evidence revealed FTY720-mediated anergy-polarization of mouse bone marrow-derived dendritic cells in vitro. PLoS One 2012; 7:e34830. [PMID: 22693544 PMCID: PMC3365054 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0034830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2011] [Accepted: 03/06/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Abnormal inflammations are central therapeutic targets in numerous infectious and autoimmune diseases. Dendritic cells (DCs) are involved in these inflammations, serving as both antigen presenters and proinflammatory cytokine providers. As an immuno-suppressor applied to the therapies of multiple sclerosis and allograft transplantation, fingolimod (FTY720) was shown to affect DC migration and its crosstalk with T cells. We posit FTY720 can induce an anergy-polarized phenotype switch on DCs in vitro, especially upon endotoxic activation. A lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced mouse bone marrow-derived dendritic cell (BMDC) activation model was employed to test FTY720-induced phenotypic changes on immature and mature DCs. Specifically, methods for morphology, nanostructure, cytokine production, phagocytosis, endocytosis and specific antigen presentation studies were used. FTY720 induced significant alterations of surface markers, as well as decline of shape indices, cell volume, surface roughness in LPS-activated mature BMDCs. These phenotypic, morphological and topographical changes were accompanied by FTY720-mediated down-regulation of proinflammatory cytokines, including IL-6, TNF-α, IL-12 and MCP-1. Together with suppressed nitric oxide (NO) production and CCR7 transcription in FTY720-treated BMDCs with or without LPS activation, an inhibitory mechanism of NO and cytokine reciprocal activation was suggested. This implication was supported by the impaired phagocytotic, endocytotic and specific antigen presentation abilities observed in the FTY720-treated BMDCs. In conclusion, we demonstrated FTY720 can induce anergy-polarization in both immature and LPS-activated mature BMDCs. A possible mechanism is FTY720-mediated reciprocal suppression on the intrinsic activation pathway and cytokine production with endpoint exhibitions on phagocytosis, endocytosis, antigen presentation as well as cellular morphology and topography.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiangfeng Zeng
- Institute for Tissue Transplantation and Immunology, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Tong Wang
- Institute for Tissue Transplantation and Immunology, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
- Institute of Life and Health Engineering, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Cairong Zhu
- Guangzhou Women and Children’s Medical Center, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Xiaobo Xing
- Department of Chemistry, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
- MOE Key Laboratory of Laser Life Science and Institute of Laser Life Science, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yanxia Ye
- Institute for Tissue Transplantation and Immunology, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xinqiang Lai
- Institute for Tissue Transplantation and Immunology, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Bing Song
- Institute for Tissue Transplantation and Immunology, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yaoying Zeng
- Institute for Tissue Transplantation and Immunology, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
- * E-mail:
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55
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Ammirati E, Cianflone D, Vecchio V, Banfi M, Vermi AC, De Metrio M, Grigore L, Pellegatta F, Pirillo A, Garlaschelli K, Manfredi AA, Catapano AL, Maseri A, Palini AG, Norata GD. Effector Memory T cells Are Associated With Atherosclerosis in Humans and Animal Models. J Am Heart Assoc 2012; 1:27-41. [PMID: 23130116 PMCID: PMC3487313 DOI: 10.1161/jaha.111.000125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2011] [Accepted: 12/21/2011] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND#ENTITYSTARTX02014;: Adaptive T-cell response is promoted during atherogenesis and results in the differentiation of naïve CD4(+)T cells to effector and/or memory cells of specialized T-cell subsets. Aim of this work was to investigate the relationship between circulating CD4(+)T-cell subsets and atherosclerosis. METHODS AND RESULTS#ENTITYSTARTX02014;: We analyzed 57 subsets of circulating CD4(+)T cells by 10-parameter/8-color polychromatic flow cytometry (markers: CD3/CD4/CD45RO/CD45RA/CCR7/CCR5/CXCR3/HLA-DR) in peripheral blood from 313 subjects derived from 2 independent cohorts. In the first cohort of subjects from a free-living population (n=183), effector memory T cells (T(EM): CD3(+)CD4(+)CD45RA(-)CD45RO(+)CCR7(-) cells) were strongly related with intima-media thickness of the common carotid artery, even after adjustment for age (r=0.27; P<0.001). Of note, a significant correlation between T(EM) and low-density lipoproteins was observed. In the second cohort (n=130), T(EM) levels were significantly increased in patients with chronic stable angina or acute myocardial infarction compared with controls. HLA-DR(+)T(EM) were the T(EM) subpopulation with the strongest association with the atherosclerotic process (r=0.37; P<0.01). Finally, in animal models of atherosclerosis, T(EM) (identified as CD4(+)CD44(+)CD62L(-)) were significantly increased in low-density lipoprotein receptor and apolipoprotein E deficient mice compared with controls and were correlated with the extent of atherosclerotic lesions in the aortic root (r=0.56; P<0.01). CONCLUSIONS#ENTITYSTARTX02014;: Circulating T(EM) cells are associated with increased atherosclerosis and coronary artery disease in humans and in animal models and could represent a key CD4(+)T-cell subset related to the atherosclerotic process. (J Am Heart Assoc. 2012;1:27-41.).
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Affiliation(s)
- Enrico Ammirati
- Clinical Cardiovascular Biology Centre, San Raffaele Scientific Institute and the Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele , Milan, Italy (E.A., D.C., M.B.) ; Heart Transplantation Division, Ospedale Niguarda Ca' Granda , Milan, Italy (E.A.) ; Heart Care Foundation , Florence, Italy (E.A., A.M.)
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56
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Busch M, Zernecke A. microRNAs in the regulation of dendritic cell functions in inflammation and atherosclerosis. J Mol Med (Berl) 2012; 90:877-85. [PMID: 22307520 DOI: 10.1007/s00109-012-0864-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2011] [Revised: 01/14/2012] [Accepted: 01/16/2012] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Atherosclerosis has been established as a chronic inflammatory disease of the vessel wall. Among the mononuclear cell types recruited to the lesions, specialized dendritic cells (DCs) have gained increasing attention, and their secretory products and interactions shape the progression of atherosclerotic plaques. The regulation of DC functions by microRNAs (miRNAs) may thus be of primary importance in disease. We here systematically summarize the biogenesis and functions of miRNAs and provide an overview of miRNAs in DCs, their targets, and potential implications for atherosclerosis, with a particular focus on the best characterized miRNAs in DCs, namely, miR-155 and miR-146. MiRNA functions in DCs range from regulation of lipid uptake to cytokine production and T cell responses with a complex picture emerging, in which miRNAs cooperate or antagonize DC behavior, thereby promoting or counterbalancing inflammatory responses. As miRNAs regulate key functions of DCs known to control atherosclerotic vascular disease, their potential as a therapeutic target holds promise and should be attended to in future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Busch
- Rudolf-Virchow-Center/DFG Research Center for Experimental Biomedicine, University of Würzburg, Josef-Schneider Str. 2, Haus D15, 97080 Würzburg, Germany
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57
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Affiliation(s)
- John F Keaney
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, UMass Medical School, 55 Lake Avenue North, Worcester, MA, 01655, USA.
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58
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Cheng XW, Huang Z, Kuzuya M, Okumura K, Murohara T. Cysteine Protease Cathepsins in Atherosclerosis-Based Vascular Disease and Its Complications. Hypertension 2011; 58:978-86. [PMID: 21986502 DOI: 10.1161/hypertensionaha.111.180935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xian Wu Cheng
- From the Departments of Cardiology (X.W.C., K.O., T.M.) and Geriatrics (Z.H., M.K.), Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan; Department of Cardiology (X.W.C.), Yanbian University Hospital, Yanji, Jilin Province, China; Department of Internal Medicine (X.W.C.), Kyung Hee University Hospital, Seoul, Korea
| | - Zhe Huang
- From the Departments of Cardiology (X.W.C., K.O., T.M.) and Geriatrics (Z.H., M.K.), Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan; Department of Cardiology (X.W.C.), Yanbian University Hospital, Yanji, Jilin Province, China; Department of Internal Medicine (X.W.C.), Kyung Hee University Hospital, Seoul, Korea
| | - Masafumi Kuzuya
- From the Departments of Cardiology (X.W.C., K.O., T.M.) and Geriatrics (Z.H., M.K.), Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan; Department of Cardiology (X.W.C.), Yanbian University Hospital, Yanji, Jilin Province, China; Department of Internal Medicine (X.W.C.), Kyung Hee University Hospital, Seoul, Korea
| | - Kenji Okumura
- From the Departments of Cardiology (X.W.C., K.O., T.M.) and Geriatrics (Z.H., M.K.), Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan; Department of Cardiology (X.W.C.), Yanbian University Hospital, Yanji, Jilin Province, China; Department of Internal Medicine (X.W.C.), Kyung Hee University Hospital, Seoul, Korea
| | - Toyoaki Murohara
- From the Departments of Cardiology (X.W.C., K.O., T.M.) and Geriatrics (Z.H., M.K.), Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan; Department of Cardiology (X.W.C.), Yanbian University Hospital, Yanji, Jilin Province, China; Department of Internal Medicine (X.W.C.), Kyung Hee University Hospital, Seoul, Korea
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59
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Choi JH, Cheong C, Dandamudi DB, Park CG, Rodriguez A, Mehandru S, Velinzon K, Jung IH, Yoo JY, Oh GT, Steinman RM. Flt3 signaling-dependent dendritic cells protect against atherosclerosis. Immunity 2011; 35:819-31. [PMID: 22078798 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2011.09.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 152] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2011] [Revised: 06/14/2011] [Accepted: 09/07/2011] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Early events in atherosclerosis occur in the aortic intima and involve monocytes that become macrophages. We looked for these cells in the steady state adult mouse aorta, and surprisingly, we found a dominance of dendritic cells (DCs) in the intima. In contrast to aortic adventitial macrophages, CD11c(+)MHC II(hi) DCs were poorly phagocytic but were immune stimulatory. DCs were of two types primarily: classical Flt3-Flt3L signaling-dependent, CD103(+)CD11b(-) DCs and macrophage-colony stimulating factor (M-CSF)-dependent, CD14(+)CD11b(+)DC-SIGN(+) monocyte-derived DCs. Both types expanded during atherosclerosis. By crossing Flt3(-/-) to Ldlr(-/-) atherosclerosis-prone mice, we developed a selective and marked deficiency of classical CD103(+) aortic DCs, and they were associated with exacerbated atherosclerosis without alterations in blood lipids. Concomitantly, the Flt3(-/-)Ldlr(-/-) mice had fewer Foxp3(+) Treg cells and increased inflammatory cytokine mRNAs in the aorta. Therefore, functional DCs are dominant in normal aortic intima and, in contrast to macrophages, CD103(+) classical DCs are associated with atherosclerosis protection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jae-Hoon Choi
- Laboratory of Cellular Physiology and Immunology, Chris Browne Center for Immunology, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
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60
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph J. Binder
- From the Center for Molecular Medicine of the Austrian Academy of Sciences (C.J.B.), Department of Laboratory Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria (C.J.B.); Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA (C.J.B., J.L.W.)
| | - Joseph L. Witztum
- From the Center for Molecular Medicine of the Austrian Academy of Sciences (C.J.B.), Department of Laboratory Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria (C.J.B.); Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA (C.J.B., J.L.W.)
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61
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW This review summarizes the recent data on the 'Autoimmune Concept of Atherosclerosis', according to which the first stage of this disease is due to an autoimmune reaction against arterial endothelial cells expressing heat shock protein 60 (HSP60) and adhesion molecules when stressed by classical atherosclerosis risk factors. Special emphasis is put on oxidized low-density lipoproteins as early endothelial stressors. RECENT FINDINGS Plasma cholesterol and LDL levels considered 'normal' by the medical community are possibly too high from an evolutionary viewpoint. The proinflammatory milieu at sites of early atherosclerotic lesions could be conducive to oxidation of LDL in situ. LDL oxidation can also take place at nonvascular sites or in the circulation under general proinflammatory conditions explaining its proatherosclerotic role in 'normocholesterolemic' individuals. SUMMARY We hypothesize that the plasma cholesterol and LDL levels currently considered normal are evolutionarily too high. Cholesterol and/or oxidized low-density lipoprotein, even as a mild HSP60-inducing endothelial stressor, function as a ubiquitous risk factor. If this hypothesis is true, most members of developed societies might be at risk to develop atherosclerotic plaques at anti-HSP60-immunity-triggered intimal inflammatory foci, irrespective of the primary risk-factor(s).
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Affiliation(s)
- Cecilia Grundtman
- Laboratory of Autoimmunity, Division for Experimental Pathophysiology and Immunology, Biocenter, Innsbruck Medical University, Innsbruck, Austria.
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62
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Koltsova EK, Ley K. How dendritic cells shape atherosclerosis. Trends Immunol 2011; 32:540-7. [PMID: 21835696 DOI: 10.1016/j.it.2011.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2011] [Revised: 06/19/2011] [Accepted: 07/05/2011] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Atherosclerosis is an inflammatory disease of the arteries, which results in major morbidity and mortality. Immune cells initiate and sustain local inflammation. Here, we focus on how dendritic cell (DC)-mediated processes might be relevant to atherosclerosis. Although only small numbers of DCs are detected in healthy arteries, these numbers dramatically increase during atherosclerosis development. In the earliest fatty streaks, DCs are found next to the vascular endothelium. During plaque growth, new DCs are actively recruited, and their egress from the vessel wall is dampened. In the adventitia next to mature atherosclerotic lesions, tertiary lymphoid organs develop, which also contain DCs. Thus, DCs probably participate in all stages of atherosclerosis from fatty streaks to mature lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ekaterina K Koltsova
- Division of Inflammation Biology, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
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63
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Abstract
Monocytes are a heterogeneous cell population with subset-specific functions and phenotypes. The differential expression of CD14 and CD16 distinguishes classical CD14(++)CD16(-), intermediate CD14(++)CD16(+), and nonclassical CD14(+)CD16(++) monocytes. Current knowledge on human monocyte heterogeneity is still incomplete: while it is increasingly acknowledged that CD14(++)CD16(+) monocytes are of outstanding significance in 2 global health issues, namely HIV-1 infection and atherosclerosis, CD14(++)CD16(+) monocytes remain the most poorly characterized subset so far. We therefore developed a method to purify the 3 monocyte subsets from human blood and analyzed their transcriptomes using SuperSAGE in combination with high-throughput sequencing. Analysis of 5 487 603 tags revealed unique identifiers of CD14(++)CD16(+) monocytes, delineating these cells from the 2 other monocyte subsets. Gene Ontology (GO) enrichment analysis suggests diverse immunologic functions, linking CD14(++)CD16(+) monocytes to Ag processing and presentation (eg, CD74, HLA-DR, IFI30, CTSB), to inflammation and monocyte activation (eg, TGFB1, AIF1, PTPN6), and to angiogenesis (eg, TIE2, CD105). In conclusion, we provide genetic evidence for a distinct role of CD14(++)CD16(+) monocytes in human immunity. After CD14(++)CD16(+) monocytes have earlier been discussed as a potential therapeutic target in inflammatory diseases, we are hopeful that our data will spur further research in the field of monocyte heterogeneity.
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64
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Sjöberg S, Shi GP. Cysteine Protease Cathepsins in Atherosclerosis and Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm. Clin Rev Bone Miner Metab 2011; 9:138-147. [PMID: 22505840 DOI: 10.1007/s12018-011-9098-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Extracellular matrix remodeling is an important mechanism in the initiation and progression of cardiovascular diseases. Cysteine protease cathepsins are among the important proteases that affect major events in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis and abdominal aortic aneurysm, including smooth muscle cell transmigration through elastic lamina, macrophage foam cell formation, vascular cell and macrophage apoptosis, and plaque rupture. These events have been studied in cathepsin deficiencies and cathepsin inhibitor deficiencies in mice and have provided invaluable insights regarding the roles of cathepsins in cardiovascular diseases. Pharmacological inhibitions for cathepsins are under evaluation for other human diseases and may be used as clinical treatments for cardiovascular diseases in the near future. This article reviews different mechanisms for cathepsins in atherosclerosis and abdominal aortic aneurysm that could be targeted by selective cathepsin inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Sjöberg
- Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
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65
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Lahoute C, Herbin O, Mallat Z, Tedgui A. Adaptive immunity in atherosclerosis: mechanisms and future therapeutic targets. Nat Rev Cardiol 2011; 8:348-58. [PMID: 21502963 DOI: 10.1038/nrcardio.2011.62] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Chronic inflammation drives the development of atherosclerosis, and adaptive immunity is deeply involved in this process. Initial studies attributed a pathogenic role to T cells in atherosclerosis, mainly owing to the proatherogenic role of the T-helper (T(H))-1 cell subset, whereas the influence of T(H)2 and T(H)17 subsets is still debated. Today we know that T regulatory cells play a critical role in the protection against atherosclerotic lesion development and inflammation. In contrast to T cells, B cells were initially considered to be protective in atherosclerosis, assumingly through the production of protective antibodies against oxidized LDL. This concept has now been refined and proatherogenic roles of certain mature B cell subsets have been identified. We review the current knowledge about the role of various lymphocyte subsets in the development and progression of atherosclerosis and highlight future targets for immunomodulatory therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte Lahoute
- French National Institute of Health and Medical Research, Paris Cardiovascular Research Center, Université Paris Descartes, 56 rue Leblanc, Paris, France
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66
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Borghese F, Clanchy FIL. CD74: an emerging opportunity as a therapeutic target in cancer and autoimmune disease. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2011; 15:237-51. [PMID: 21208136 DOI: 10.1517/14728222.2011.550879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION CD74, also known as the invariant chain, participates in several key processes of the immune system, including antigen presentation, B-cell differentiation and inflammatory signaling. Despite being described more than 3 decades ago, new functions and novel interactions for this evolutionarily conserved molecule are still being unraveled. As a participant in several immunological processes and an indicator of disease in some conditions, it has potential as a therapeutic target. AREAS COVERED The relationship between the structure of CD74 variants and their physiological functions is detailed in this review. The function of CD74 in several cell lineages is examined with a focus on the interactions with cathepsins and, in an inflammatory milieu, the pro-inflammatory cytokine macrophage migratory inhibitory factor. The role of CD74 signaling in inflammatory and carcinogenic processes is outlined as is the use of CD74 as a therapeutic target (in cancer) and tool (as a vaccine). EXPERT OPINION CD74 has several roles within the cell and throughout the immune system. Most prominent amongst these are the complex relationships with MIF and cathepsins. Modulation of CD74 function shows promise for the effective amelioration of disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federica Borghese
- Sapienza University of Rome, Department of Clinical Medicine, Clinical Immunology Unit, Umberto I Policlinico di Roma, 155 Viale del Policlinico, Rome, IT 00161
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Kones R. Rosuvastatin, inflammation, C-reactive protein, JUPITER, and primary prevention of cardiovascular disease--a perspective. Drug Des Devel Ther 2010; 4:383-413. [PMID: 21267417 PMCID: PMC3023269 DOI: 10.2147/dddt.s10812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The major public health concern worldwide is coronary heart disease, with dyslipidemia as a major risk factor. Statin drugs are recommended by several guidelines for both primary and secondary prevention. Rosuvastatin has been widely accepted because of its efficacy, potency, and superior safety profile. Inflammation is involved in all phases of atherosclerosis, with the process beginning in early youth and advancing relentlessly for decades throughout life. C-reactive protein (CRP) is a well-studied, nonspecific marker of inflammation which may reflect general health risk. Considerable evidence suggests CRP is an independent predictor of future cardiovascular events, but direct involvement in atherosclerosis remains controversial. Rosuvastatin is a synthetic, hydrophilic statin with unique stereochemistry. A large proportion of patients achieve evidence-based lipid targets while using the drug, and it slows progression and induces regression of atherosclerotic coronary lesions. Rosuvastatin lowers CRP levels significantly. The Justification for Use of statins in Prevention: an Intervention Trial Evaluating Rosuvastatin (JUPITER) trial was designed after the observation that when both low density lipoprotein and CRP were reduced, patients fared better than when only LDL was lowered. Advocates and critics alike acknowledge that the benefits of rosuvastatin in JUPITER were real. After a review, the US Food and Drug Administration extended the indications for rosuvastatin to include asymptomatic JUPITER-eligible individuals with one additional risk factor. The American Heart Association and Centers of Disease Control and Prevention had previously recognized the use of CRP in persons with "intermediate risk" as defined by global risk scores. The Canadian Cardiovascular Society guidelines went further and recommended use of statins in persons with low LDL and high CRP levels at intermediate risk. The JUPITER study focused attention on ostensibly healthy individuals with "normal" lipid profiles and high CRP values who benefited from statin therapy. The backdrop to JUPITER during this period was an increasing awareness of a rising cardiovascular risk burden and imperfect methods of risk evaluation, so that a significant number of individuals were being denied beneficial therapies. Other concerns have been a high level of residual risk in those who are treated, poor patient adherence, a need to follow guidelines more closely, a dual global epidemic of obesity and diabetes, and a progressively deteriorating level of physical activity in the population. Calls for new and more effective means of reducing risk for coronary heart disease are intensifying. In view of compelling evidence supporting earlier and aggressive therapy in people with high risk burdens, JUPITER simply offers another choice for stratification and earlier risk reduction in primary prevention patients. When indicated, and in individuals unwilling or unable to change their diet and lifestyles sufficiently, the benefits of statins greatly exceed the risks. Two side effects of interest are myotoxicity and an increase in the incidence of diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Kones
- The Cardiometabolic Research, Institute, Houston, TX 77054, USA.
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