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Marcondes CB, Contigiani M, Gleiser RM. Emergent and Reemergent Arboviruses in South America and the Caribbean: Why So Many and Why Now? JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY 2017; 54:509-532. [PMID: 28399216 DOI: 10.1093/jme/tjw209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2016] [Accepted: 10/20/2016] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Varios arbovirus han emergido y/o reemergido en el Nuevo Mundo en las últimas décadas. Los virus Zika y chikungunya, anteriormente restringidos a África y quizás Asia, invadieron el continente, causando gran preocupación; además siguen ocurriendo brotes causados por el virus dengue en casi todos los países, con millones de casos por año. El virus West Nile invadió rápidamente América del Norte, y ya se han encontrado casos en América Central y del Sur. Otros arbovirus, como Mayaro y el virus de la encefalitis equina del este han aumentado su actividad y se han encontrado en nuevas regiones. Se han documentado cambios en la patogenicidad de algunos virus que conducen a enfermedades inesperadas. Una fauna diversa de mosquitos, cambios climáticos y en la vegetación, aumento de los viajes, y urbanizaciones no planificadas que generan condiciones adecuadas para la proliferación de Aedes aegypti (L.), Culex quinquefasciatus Say y otros mosquitos vectores, se han combinado para influir fuertemente en los cambios en la distribución y la incidencia de varios arbovirus. Se enfatiza la necesidad de realizar estudios exhaustivos de la fauna de mosquitos y modificaciones de las condiciones ambientales, sobre todo en las zonas urbanas fuertemente influenciadas por factores sociales, políticos y económicos.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Brisola Marcondes
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Centro de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina 88040-900, Brazil
| | - Marta Contigiani
- Emeritus Professor, Instituto de Virologia "Dr. J. M. Vanella", Enfermera Gordillo Gomez s/n, Ciudad Universitaria, National University of Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Raquel Miranda Gleiser
- Centro de Relevamiento y Evaluación de Recursos Agrícolas y Naturales (CREAN) - Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Vegetal (IMBIV), Universidad Nacional de Córdoba (UNC) and Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Córdoba, Argentina
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Gupta P, Sharma A, Han J, Yang A, Bhomia M, Knollmann-Ritschel B, Puri RK, Maheshwari RK. Differential host gene responses from infection with neurovirulent and partially-neurovirulent strains of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus. BMC Infect Dis 2017; 17:309. [PMID: 28446152 PMCID: PMC5405508 DOI: 10.1186/s12879-017-2355-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2016] [Accepted: 03/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) is an alphavirus in the family Togaviridae. VEEV causes a bi-phasic illness in mice where primary replication in lymphoid organs is followed by entry into the central nervous system (CNS). The CNS phase of infection is marked by encephalitis and large scale neuronal death ultimately resulting in death. Molecular determinants of VEEV neurovirulence are not well understood. In this study, host gene expression response to highly neurovirulent VEEV (V3000 strain) infection was compared with that of a partially neurovirulent VEEV (V3034 strain) to identify host factors associated with VEEV neurovirulence. Methods Whole genome microarrays were performed to identify the significantly modulated genes. Microarray observations were classified into three categories i.e., genes that were similarly modulated against both V3000 and V3034 infections, and genes that were uniquely modulated in infection with V3034 or V3000. Histologic sections of spleen and brain were evaluated by hematoxylin and eosin stains from all the mice. Results V3000 infection induced a greater degree of pathology in both the spleen and brain tissue of infected mice compared to V3034 infection. Genes commonly modulated in the spleens after V3000 or V3034 infection were associated with innate immune responses, inflammation and antigen presentation, however, V3000 induced a gene response profile that suggests a stronger inflammatory and apoptotic response compared to V3034. In the brain, both the strains of VEEV induced an innate immune response reflected by an upregulation of the genes involved in antigen presentation, interferon response, and inflammation. Similar to the spleen, V3000 was found to induce a stronger inflammatory response than V3034 in terms of induction of pro-inflammatory genes and associated pathways. Ccl2, Ccl5, Ccl6, and Ly6 were uniquely upregulated in V3000 infected mouse brains and correlated with the extensive inflammation observed in the brain. Conclusion The common gene profile identified from V3000 and V3034 exposure can help in understanding a generalized host response to VEEV infection. Inflammatory genes that were uniquely identified in mouse brains with V3000 infection will help in better understanding the lethal neurovirulence of VEEV. Future studies are needed to explore the roles played by the genes identified in VEEV induced encephalitis. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12879-017-2355-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paridhi Gupta
- Department of Pathology, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, 4301 Jones Bridge Road, Bethesda, MD, 20814, USA
| | - Anuj Sharma
- Department of Pathology, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, 4301 Jones Bridge Road, Bethesda, MD, 20814, USA.
| | - Jing Han
- Division of Cellular and Gene Therapies, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Amy Yang
- Division of Cellular and Gene Therapies, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Manish Bhomia
- Department of Pathology, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, 4301 Jones Bridge Road, Bethesda, MD, 20814, USA
| | - Barbara Knollmann-Ritschel
- Department of Pathology, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, 4301 Jones Bridge Road, Bethesda, MD, 20814, USA
| | - Raj K Puri
- Division of Cellular and Gene Therapies, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Radha K Maheshwari
- Department of Pathology, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, 4301 Jones Bridge Road, Bethesda, MD, 20814, USA
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Rivarola ME, Albrieu-Llinás G, Pisano MB, Tauro LB, Gorosito-Serrán M, Beccaria CG, Díaz LA, Vázquez A, Quaglia A, López C, Spinsanti L, Gruppi A, Contigiani MS. Tissue tropism of Saint Louis encephalitis virus: Histopathology triggered by epidemic and non-epidemic strains isolated in Argentina. Virology 2017; 505:181-192. [PMID: 28279829 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2017.02.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2016] [Revised: 02/07/2017] [Accepted: 02/28/2017] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Saint Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV) reemerged in South America, and caused encephalitis outbreaks at the beginning of the 21st century. To enhance our knowledge about SLEV virulence, we performed comparative pathogenesis studies in Swiss albino mice inoculated with two different variants, the epidemic strain CbaAr-4005 and the non-epidemic strain CorAn-9275. Only the infection of mice with SLEV strain CbaAr-4005 resulted in high viremia, invasion of peripheral tissues including the lungs, kidney, and spleen, and viral neuroinvasion. This was associated with inflammatory pathology in the lungs, spleen, and brain as well as morbidity and mortality. In contrast, neither signs of desease nor viral replication were observed in mice infected with strain CorAn-9275. Interestingly, important loss of B cells and development of altered germinal centers (GC) were detected in the spleen of mice infected with strain CbaAr-4005, whereas mice infected with SLEV CorAn-9275 developed prominent GC with conserved follicular architecture, and neutralizing antibodies.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Elisa Rivarola
- Laboratorio de Arbovirus, Instituto de Virología ''Dr. J. M. Vanella'', Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Enfermera Gordillo Gómez S/N. CP, 5016, Ciudad Universitaria, Córdoba, Argentina; Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas y Tecnológicas, CONICET-Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Av. Velez Sarfield 1611, CP: 5016, Córdoba, Argentina.
| | - Guillermo Albrieu-Llinás
- Laboratorio de Arbovirus, Instituto de Virología ''Dr. J. M. Vanella'', Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Enfermera Gordillo Gómez S/N. CP, 5016, Ciudad Universitaria, Córdoba, Argentina; Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas y Tecnológicas, CONICET-Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Av. Velez Sarfield 1611, CP: 5016, Córdoba, Argentina.
| | - María Belén Pisano
- Laboratorio de Arbovirus, Instituto de Virología ''Dr. J. M. Vanella'', Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Enfermera Gordillo Gómez S/N. CP, 5016, Ciudad Universitaria, Córdoba, Argentina; Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas y Tecnológicas, CONICET-Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Av. Velez Sarfield 1611, CP: 5016, Córdoba, Argentina.
| | - Laura Beatriz Tauro
- Laboratorio de Arbovirus, Instituto de Virología ''Dr. J. M. Vanella'', Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Enfermera Gordillo Gómez S/N. CP, 5016, Ciudad Universitaria, Córdoba, Argentina; Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas y Tecnológicas, CONICET-Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Av. Velez Sarfield 1611, CP: 5016, Córdoba, Argentina.
| | - Melisa Gorosito-Serrán
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas y Tecnológicas, CONICET-Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Av. Velez Sarfield 1611, CP: 5016, Córdoba, Argentina; Inmunología, Departamento de Bioquímica Clínica, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Av. Medina Allende y Haya de la Torre. CP: 5016, Córdoba, Argentina.
| | - Cristian Gabriel Beccaria
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas y Tecnológicas, CONICET-Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Av. Velez Sarfield 1611, CP: 5016, Córdoba, Argentina; Inmunología, Departamento de Bioquímica Clínica, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Av. Medina Allende y Haya de la Torre. CP: 5016, Córdoba, Argentina.
| | - Luis Adrián Díaz
- Laboratorio de Arbovirus, Instituto de Virología ''Dr. J. M. Vanella'', Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Enfermera Gordillo Gómez S/N. CP, 5016, Ciudad Universitaria, Córdoba, Argentina; Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas y Tecnológicas, CONICET-Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Av. Velez Sarfield 1611, CP: 5016, Córdoba, Argentina.
| | - Ana Vázquez
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas y Tecnológicas, CONICET-Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Av. Velez Sarfield 1611, CP: 5016, Córdoba, Argentina; Instituto de Salud Carlos III. Carretera de Majadahonda - Pozuelo, Km. 2.200. 28220 - Majadahonda (Madrid); CIBER de Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Spain.
| | - Agustín Quaglia
- Laboratorio de Arbovirus, Instituto de Virología ''Dr. J. M. Vanella'', Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Enfermera Gordillo Gómez S/N. CP, 5016, Ciudad Universitaria, Córdoba, Argentina; Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas y Tecnológicas, CONICET-Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Av. Velez Sarfield 1611, CP: 5016, Córdoba, Argentina.
| | - Cristina López
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas y Tecnológicas, CONICET-Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Av. Velez Sarfield 1611, CP: 5016, Córdoba, Argentina; Instituto de Biología Celular. Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Juan Filloy S/N. PC: 5000, Ciudad Universitaria, Córdoba, Argentina.
| | - Lorena Spinsanti
- Laboratorio de Arbovirus, Instituto de Virología ''Dr. J. M. Vanella'', Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Enfermera Gordillo Gómez S/N. CP, 5016, Ciudad Universitaria, Córdoba, Argentina; Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas y Tecnológicas, CONICET-Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Av. Velez Sarfield 1611, CP: 5016, Córdoba, Argentina.
| | - Adriana Gruppi
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas y Tecnológicas, CONICET-Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Av. Velez Sarfield 1611, CP: 5016, Córdoba, Argentina; Inmunología, Departamento de Bioquímica Clínica, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Av. Medina Allende y Haya de la Torre. CP: 5016, Córdoba, Argentina.
| | - Marta Silvia Contigiani
- Laboratorio de Arbovirus, Instituto de Virología ''Dr. J. M. Vanella'', Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Enfermera Gordillo Gómez S/N. CP, 5016, Ciudad Universitaria, Córdoba, Argentina; Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas y Tecnológicas, CONICET-Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Av. Velez Sarfield 1611, CP: 5016, Córdoba, Argentina.
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Rezza G, Ippolito G. Syrian Hamsters as a Small Animal Model for Emerging Infectious Diseases: Advances in Immunologic Methods. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2017; 972:87-101. [PMID: 27722960 PMCID: PMC7121384 DOI: 10.1007/5584_2016_135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The use of small animal models for the study of infectious disease is critical for understanding disease progression and for developing prophylactic and therapeutic treatment options. For many diseases, Syrian golden hamsters have emerged as an ideal animal model due to their low cost, small size, ease of handling, and ability to accurately reflect disease progression in humans. Despite the increasing use and popularity of hamsters, there remains a lack of available reagents for studying hamster immune responses. Without suitable reagents for assessing immune responses, researchers are left to examine clinical signs and disease pathology. This becomes an issue for the development of vaccine and treatment options where characterizing the type of immune response generated is critical for understanding protection from disease. Despite the relative lack of reagents for use in hamsters, significant advances have been made recently with several hamster specific immunologic methods being developed. Here we discuss the progress of this development, with focus on classical methods used as well as more recent molecular methods. We outline what methods are currently available for use in hamsters and what is readily used as well as what limitations still exist and future perspectives of reagent and assay development for hamsters. This will provide valuable information to researchers who are deciding whether to use hamsters as an animal model.
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Lundberg L, Pinkham C, de la Fuente C, Brahms A, Shafagati N, Wagstaff KM, Jans DA, Tamir S, Kehn-Hall K. Selective Inhibitor of Nuclear Export (SINE) Compounds Alter New World Alphavirus Capsid Localization and Reduce Viral Replication in Mammalian Cells. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2016; 10:e0005122. [PMID: 27902702 PMCID: PMC5130180 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0005122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2015] [Accepted: 10/21/2016] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
The capsid structural protein of the New World alphavirus, Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV), interacts with the host nuclear transport proteins importin α/β1 and CRM1. Novel selective inhibitor of nuclear export (SINE) compounds, KPT-185, KPT-335 (verdinexor), and KPT-350, target the host's primary nuclear export protein, CRM1, in a manner similar to the archetypical inhibitor Leptomycin B. One major limitation of Leptomycin B is its irreversible binding to CRM1; which SINE compounds alleviate because they are slowly reversible. Chemically inhibiting CRM1 with these compounds enhanced capsid localization to the nucleus compared to the inactive compound KPT-301, as indicated by immunofluorescent confocal microscopy. Differences in extracellular versus intracellular viral RNA, as well as decreased capsid in cell free supernatants, indicated the inhibitors affected viral assembly, which led to a decrease in viral titers. The decrease in viral replication was confirmed using a luciferase-tagged virus and through plaque assays. SINE compounds had no effect on VEEV TC83_Cm, which encodes a mutated form of capsid that is unable to enter the nucleus. Serially passaging VEEV in the presence of KPT-185 resulted in mutations within the nuclear localization and nuclear export signals of capsid. Finally, SINE compound treatment also reduced the viral titers of the related eastern and western equine encephalitis viruses, suggesting that CRM1 maintains a common interaction with capsid proteins across the New World alphavirus genus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lindsay Lundberg
- National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, School of Systems Biology, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Chelsea Pinkham
- National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, School of Systems Biology, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Cynthia de la Fuente
- National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, School of Systems Biology, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Ashwini Brahms
- National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, School of Systems Biology, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Nazly Shafagati
- National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, School of Systems Biology, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Kylie M. Wagstaff
- Nuclear Signaling Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - David A. Jans
- Nuclear Signaling Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Sharon Tamir
- Karyopharm Therapeutics Inc., Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Kylene Kehn-Hall
- National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, School of Systems Biology, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia, United States of America
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Rico AB, Phillips AT, Schountz T, Jarvis DL, Tjalkens RB, Powers AM, Olson KE. Venezuelan and western equine encephalitis virus E1 liposome antigen nucleic acid complexes protect mice from lethal challenge with multiple alphaviruses. Virology 2016; 499:30-39. [PMID: 27632563 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2016.08.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2016] [Revised: 08/24/2016] [Accepted: 08/25/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Eastern, Venezuelan and western equine encephalitis viruses (EEEV, VEEV, and WEEV) are mosquito-borne viruses that cause substantial disease in humans and other vertebrates. Vaccines are limited and current treatment options have not proven successful. In this report, we vaccinated outbred mice with lipid-antigen-nucleic acid-complexes (LANACs) containing VEEV E1+WEEV E1 antigen and characterized protective efficacy against lethal EEEV, VEEV, and WEEV challenge. Vaccination resulted in complete protection against EEEV, VEEV, and WEEV in CD-1 mice. Measurements of bioluminescence and plaque reduction neutralization tests (PRNTs) indicate that LANAC VEEV E1+WEEV E1 vaccination is sterilizing against VEEV and WEEV challenge; whereas immunity to EEEV is not sterilizing. Passive transfer of rabbit VEEV E1+WEEV E1 immune serum to naive mice extended the mean time to death (MTD) of EEEV challenged mice and provided significant protection from lethal VEEV and WEEV challenge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amber B Rico
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA.
| | - Aaron T Phillips
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Tony Schountz
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Donald L Jarvis
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY, USA
| | - Ronald B Tjalkens
- Department of Environmental & Radiological Health Sciences, CSU, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Ann M Powers
- Division of Vector-Borne Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Ken E Olson
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
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The Interferon-Stimulated Gene IFITM3 Restricts Infection and Pathogenesis of Arthritogenic and Encephalitic Alphaviruses. J Virol 2016; 90:8780-94. [PMID: 27440901 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00655-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2016] [Accepted: 07/17/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Host cells respond to viral infections by producing type I interferon (IFN), which induces the expression of hundreds of interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs). Although ISGs mediate a protective state against many pathogens, the antiviral functions of the majority of these genes have not been identified. IFITM3 is a small transmembrane ISG that restricts a broad range of viruses, including orthomyxoviruses, flaviviruses, filoviruses, and coronaviruses. Here, we show that alphavirus infection is increased in Ifitm3(-/-) and Ifitm locus deletion (Ifitm-del) fibroblasts and, reciprocally, reduced in fibroblasts transcomplemented with Ifitm3. Mechanistic studies showed that Ifitm3 did not affect viral binding or entry but inhibited pH-dependent fusion. In a murine model of chikungunya virus arthritis, Ifitm3(-/-) mice sustained greater joint swelling in the ipsilateral ankle at days 3 and 7 postinfection, and this correlated with higher levels of proinflammatory cytokines and viral burden. Flow cytometric analysis suggested that Ifitm3(-/-) macrophages from the spleen were infected at greater levels than observed in wild-type (WT) mice, results that were supported by experiments with Ifitm3(-/-) bone marrow-derived macrophages. Ifitm3(-/-) mice also were more susceptible than WT mice to lethal alphavirus infection with Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus, and this was associated with greater viral burden in multiple organs. Collectively, our data define an antiviral role for Ifitm3 in restricting infection of multiple alphaviruses. IMPORTANCE The interferon-induced transmembrane protein 3 (IFITM3) inhibits infection of multiple families of viruses in cell culture. Compared to other viruses, much less is known about the antiviral effect of IFITM3 on alphaviruses. In this study, we characterized the antiviral activity of mouse Ifitm3 against arthritogenic and encephalitic alphaviruses using cells and animals with a targeted gene deletion of Ifitm3 as well as deficient cells transcomplemented with Ifitm3. Based on extensive virological analysis, we demonstrate greater levels of alphavirus infection and disease pathogenesis when Ifitm3 expression is absent. Our data establish an inhibitory role for Ifitm3 in controlling infection of alphaviruses.
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Braid LR, Hu WG, Davies JE, Nagata LP. Engineered Mesenchymal Cells Improve Passive Immune Protection Against Lethal Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis Virus Exposure. Stem Cells Transl Med 2016; 5:1026-35. [PMID: 27334491 PMCID: PMC4954456 DOI: 10.5966/sctm.2015-0341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2015] [Accepted: 03/14/2016] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED : Mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) are being exploited as gene delivery vectors for various disease and injury therapies. We provide proof-of-concept that engineered MSCs can provide a useful, effective platform for protection against infectious disease. Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) is a mosquito-borne pathogen affecting humans and equines and can be used in bio-warfare. No licensed vaccine or antiviral agent currently exists to combat VEEV infection in humans. Direct antibody administration (passive immunity) is an effective, but short-lived, method of providing immediate protection against a pathogen. We compared the protective efficacy of human umbilical cord perivascular cells (HUCPVCs; a rich source of MSCs), engineered with a transgene encoding a humanized VEEV-neutralizing antibody (anti-VEEV), to the purified antibody. In athymic mice, the anti-VEEV antibody had a half-life of 3.7 days, limiting protection to 2 or 3 days after administration. In contrast, engineered HUCPVCs generated protective anti-VEEV serum titers for 21-38 days after a single intramuscular injection. At 109 days after transplantation, 10% of the mice still had circulating anti-VEEV antibody. The mice were protected against exposure to a lethal dose of VEEV by an intramuscular pretreatment injection with engineered HUCPVCs 24 hours or 10 days before exposure, demonstrating both rapid and prolonged immune protection. The present study is the first to describe engineered MSCs as gene delivery vehicles for passive immunity and supports their utility as antibody delivery vehicles for improved, single-dose prophylaxis against endemic and intentionally disseminated pathogens. SIGNIFICANCE Direct injection of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) is an important strategy to immediately protect the recipient from a pathogen. This strategy is critical during natural outbreaks or after the intentional release of bio-weapons. Vaccines require weeks to become effective, which is not practical for first responders immediately deployed to an infected region. However, mAb recipients often require booster shots to maintain protection, which is expensive and impractical once the first responders have been deployed. The present study has shown, for the first time, that mesenchymal stromal cells are effective gene delivery vehicles that can significantly improve mAb-mediated immune protection in a single, intramuscular dose of engineered cells. Such a cell-based delivery system can provide extended life-saving protection in the event of exposure to biological threats using a more practical, single-dose regimen.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antibodies, Monoclonal, Humanized/biosynthesis
- Antibodies, Monoclonal, Humanized/genetics
- Antibodies, Monoclonal, Humanized/immunology
- Antibodies, Neutralizing/biosynthesis
- Antibodies, Neutralizing/genetics
- Antibodies, Neutralizing/immunology
- Cells, Cultured
- Encephalitis Virus, Venezuelan Equine/immunology
- Encephalitis Virus, Venezuelan Equine/pathogenicity
- Encephalomyelitis, Venezuelan Equine/immunology
- Encephalomyelitis, Venezuelan Equine/prevention & control
- Encephalomyelitis, Venezuelan Equine/virology
- Female
- Genetic Therapy/methods
- Genotype
- Half-Life
- Host-Pathogen Interactions
- Humans
- Injections, Intramuscular
- Mesenchymal Stem Cells/immunology
- Mesenchymal Stem Cells/metabolism
- Mesenchymal Stem Cells/virology
- Mice, Inbred BALB C
- Mice, Nude
- Phenotype
- Protein Stability
- Transfection
- Umbilical Cord/cytology
- Viral Vaccines/administration & dosage
- Viral Vaccines/genetics
- Viral Vaccines/immunology
- Viral Vaccines/pharmacokinetics
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorena R Braid
- Bio-Threat Defence Section, Defence Research and Development Canada, Suffield Research Centre, Ralston, Alberta, Canada Aurora BioSolutions Inc., Medicine Hat, Alberta, Canada
| | - Wei-Gang Hu
- Bio-Threat Defence Section, Defence Research and Development Canada, Suffield Research Centre, Ralston, Alberta, Canada
| | - John E Davies
- Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada Tissue Regeneration Therapeutics, Inc., Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Les P Nagata
- Bio-Threat Defence Section, Defence Research and Development Canada, Suffield Research Centre, Ralston, Alberta, Canada
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Salimi H, Cain MD, Klein RS. Encephalitic Arboviruses: Emergence, Clinical Presentation, and Neuropathogenesis. Neurotherapeutics 2016; 13:514-34. [PMID: 27220616 PMCID: PMC4965410 DOI: 10.1007/s13311-016-0443-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Arboviruses are arthropod-borne viruses that exhibit worldwide distribution, contributing to systemic and neurologic infections in a variety of geographical locations. Arboviruses are transmitted to vertebral hosts during blood feedings by mosquitoes, ticks, biting flies, mites, and nits. While the majority of arboviral infections do not lead to neuroinvasive forms of disease, they are among the most severe infectious risks to the health of the human central nervous system. The neurologic diseases caused by arboviruses include meningitis, encephalitis, myelitis, encephalomyelitis, neuritis, and myositis in which virus- and immune-mediated injury may lead to severe, persisting neurologic deficits or death. Here we will review the major families of emerging arboviruses that cause neurologic infections, their neuropathogenesis and host neuroimmunologic responses, and current strategies for treatment and prevention of neurologic infections they cause.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hamid Salimi
- Department of Internal Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Matthew D Cain
- Department of Internal Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Robyn S Klein
- Department of Internal Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA.
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA.
- Department of Neuroscience, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA.
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Ronca SE, Dineley KT, Paessler S. Neurological Sequelae Resulting from Encephalitic Alphavirus Infection. Front Microbiol 2016; 7:959. [PMID: 27379085 PMCID: PMC4913092 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.00959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2016] [Accepted: 06/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The recent surge in viral clinical cases and associated neurological deficits have reminded us that viral infections can lead to detrimental, long-term effects, termed sequelae, in survivors. Alphaviruses are enveloped, single-stranded positive-sense RNA viruses in the Togaviridae family. Transmission of alphaviruses between and within species occurs mainly via the bite of an infected mosquito bite, giving alphaviruses a place among arboviruses, or arthropod-borne viruses. Alphaviruses are found throughout the world and typically cause arthralgic or encephalitic disease in infected humans. Originally detected in the 1930s, today the major encephalitic viruses include Venezuelan, Western, and Eastern equine encephalitis viruses (VEEV, WEEV, and EEEV, respectively). VEEV, WEEV, and EEEV are endemic to the Americas and are important human pathogens, leading to thousands of human infections each year. Despite awareness of these viruses for nearly 100 years, we possess little mechanistic understanding regarding the complications (sequelae) that emerge after resolution of acute infection. Neurological sequelae are those complications involving damage to the central nervous system that results in cognitive, sensory, or motor deficits that may also manifest as emotional instability and seizures in the most severe cases. This article serves to provide an overview of clinical cases documented in the past century as well as a summary of the reported neurological sequelae due to VEEV, WEEV, and EEEV infection. We conclude with a treatise on the utility of, and practical considerations for animal models applied to the problem of neurological sequelae of viral encephalopathies in order to decipher mechanisms and interventional strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shannon E Ronca
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TXUSA; Department of Preventive Medicine and Community Health, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TXUSA
| | - Kelly T Dineley
- Department of Neurology, Center for Addiction Research, Rodent In Vivo Assessment Core, Mitchell Center for Neurodegenerative Disorders, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX USA
| | - Slobodan Paessler
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TXUSA; Institute for Human Infections and Immunity, Galveston National Laboratory, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TXUSA
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Entry Sites of Venezuelan and Western Equine Encephalitis Viruses in the Mouse Central Nervous System following Peripheral Infection. J Virol 2016; 90:5785-96. [PMID: 27053560 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.03219-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2015] [Accepted: 04/03/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Venezuelan and western equine encephalitis viruses (VEEV and WEEV; Alphavirus; Togaviridae) are mosquito-borne pathogens causing central nervous system (CNS) disease in humans and equids. Adult CD-1 mice also develop CNS disease after infection with VEEV and WEEV. Adult CD-1 mice infected by the intranasal (i.n.) route, showed that VEEV and WEEV enter the brain through olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs). In this study, we injected the mouse footpad with recombinant WEEV (McMillan) or VEEV (subtype IC strain 3908) expressing firefly luciferase (fLUC) to simulate mosquito infection and examined alphavirus entry in the CNS. Luciferase expression served as a marker of infection detected as bioluminescence (BLM) by in vivo and ex vivo imaging. BLM imaging detected WEEV and VEEV at 12 h postinoculation (hpi) at the injection site (footpad) and as early as 72 hpi in the brain. BLM from WEEV.McM-fLUC and VEEV.3908-fLUC injections was initially detected in the brain's circumventricular organs (CVOs). No BLM activity was detected in the olfactory neuroepithelium or OSNs. Mice were also injected in the footpad with WEEV.McM expressing DsRed (Discosoma sp.) and imaged by confocal fluorescence microscopy. DsRed imaging supported our BLM findings by detecting WEEV in the CVOs prior to spreading along the neuronal axis to other brain regions. Taken together, these findings support our hypothesis that peripherally injected alphaviruses enter the CNS by hematogenous seeding of the CVOs followed by centripetal spread along the neuronal axis. IMPORTANCE VEEV and WEEV are mosquito-borne viruses causing sporadic epidemics in the Americas. Both viruses are associated with CNS disease in horses, humans, and mouse infection models. In this study, we injected VEEV or WEEV, engineered to express bioluminescent or fluorescent reporters (fLUC and DsRed, respectively), into the footpads of outbred CD-1 mice to simulate transmission by a mosquito. Reporter expression serves as detectable bioluminescent and fluorescent markers of VEEV and WEEV replication and infection. Bioluminescence imaging, histological examination, and confocal fluorescence microscopy were used to identify early entry sites of these alphaviruses in the CNS. We observed that specific areas of the brain (circumventricular organs [CVOs]) consistently showed the earliest signs of infection with VEEV and WEEV. Histological examination supported VEEV and WEEV entering the brain of mice at specific sites where the blood-brain barrier is naturally absent.
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Hu X, Compton JR, Leary DH, Olson MA, Lee MS, Cheung J, Ye W, Ferrer M, Southall N, Jadhav A, Morazzani EM, Glass PJ, Marugan J, Legler PM. Kinetic, Mutational, and Structural Studies of the Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis Virus Nonstructural Protein 2 Cysteine Protease. Biochemistry 2016; 55:3007-19. [PMID: 27030368 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.5b00992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) nonstructural protein 2 (nsP2) cysteine protease (EC 3.4.22.-) is essential for viral replication and is involved in the cytopathic effects (CPE) of the virus. The VEEV nsP2 protease is a member of MEROPS Clan CN and characteristically contains a papain-like protease linked to an S-adenosyl-l-methionine-dependent RNA methyltransferase (SAM MTase) domain. The protease contains an alternative active site motif, (475)NVCWAK(480), which differs from papain's (CGS(25)CWAFS), and the enzyme lacks a transition state-stabilizing residue homologous to Gln-19 in papain. To understand the roles of conserved residues in catalysis, we determined the structure of the free enzyme and the first structure of an inhibitor-bound alphaviral protease. The peptide-like E64d inhibitor was found to bind beneath a β-hairpin at the interface of the SAM MTase and protease domains. His-546 adopted a conformation that differed from that found in the free enzyme; one or both of the conformers may assist in leaving group departure of either the amine or Cys thiolate during the catalytic cycle. Interestingly, E64c (200 μM), the carboxylic acid form of the E64d ester, did not inhibit the nsP2 protease. To identify key residues involved in substrate binding, a number of mutants were analyzed. Mutation of the motif residue, N475A, led to a 24-fold reduction in kcat/Km, and the conformation of this residue did not change after inhibition. N475 forms a hydrogen bond with R662 in the SAM MTase domain, and the R662A and R662K mutations both led to 16-fold decreases in kcat/Km. N475 forms the base of the P1 binding site and likely orients the substrate for nucleophilic attack or plays a role in product release. An Asn homologous to N475 is similarly found in coronaviral papain-like proteases (PLpro) of the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) virus and Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) virus. Mutation of another motif residue, K480A, led to a 9-fold decrease in kcat and kcat/Km. K480 likely enhances the nucleophilicity of the Cys. Consistent with our substrate-bound models, the SAM MTase domain K706A mutation increased Km 4.5-fold to 500 μM. Within the β-hairpin, the N545A mutation slightly but not significantly increased kcat and Km. The structures and identified active site residues may facilitate the discovery of protease inhibitors with antiviral activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Hu
- NIH Chemical Genomics Center, National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences , Rockville, Maryland 20850, United States
| | | | - Dagmar H Leary
- Center for Bio/molecular Science and Engineering, U.S. Naval Research Laboratory , Washington, D.C. 20375, United States
| | - Mark A Olson
- United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases , Frederick, Maryland 21702, United States
| | - Michael S Lee
- United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases , Frederick, Maryland 21702, United States
| | - Jonah Cheung
- New York Structural Biology Center , New York, New York 10027, United States
| | - Wenjuan Ye
- NIH Chemical Genomics Center, National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences , Rockville, Maryland 20850, United States
| | - Mark Ferrer
- NIH Chemical Genomics Center, National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences , Rockville, Maryland 20850, United States
| | - Noel Southall
- NIH Chemical Genomics Center, National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences , Rockville, Maryland 20850, United States
| | - Ajit Jadhav
- NIH Chemical Genomics Center, National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences , Rockville, Maryland 20850, United States
| | - Elaine M Morazzani
- United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases , Frederick, Maryland 21702, United States
| | - Pamela J Glass
- United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases , Frederick, Maryland 21702, United States
| | - Juan Marugan
- NIH Chemical Genomics Center, National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences , Rockville, Maryland 20850, United States
| | - Patricia M Legler
- Center for Bio/molecular Science and Engineering, U.S. Naval Research Laboratory , Washington, D.C. 20375, United States
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Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis Virus Induces Apoptosis through the Unfolded Protein Response Activation of EGR1. J Virol 2016; 90:3558-72. [PMID: 26792742 PMCID: PMC4794670 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02827-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2015] [Accepted: 01/08/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) is a previously weaponized arthropod-borne virus responsible for causing acute and fatal encephalitis in animal and human hosts. The increased circulation and spread in the Americas of VEEV and other encephalitic arboviruses, such as eastern equine encephalitis virus and West Nile virus, underscore the need for research aimed at characterizing the pathogenesis of viral encephalomyelitis for the development of novel medical countermeasures. The host-pathogen dynamics of VEEV Trinidad donkey-infected human astrocytoma U87MG cells were determined by carrying out RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq) of poly(A) and mRNAs. To identify the critical alterations that take place in the host transcriptome following VEEV infection, samples were collected at 4, 8, and 16 h postinfection and RNA-Seq data were acquired using an Ion Torrent PGM platform. Differential expression of interferon response, stress response factors, and components of the unfolded protein response (UPR) was observed. The protein kinase RNA-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase (PERK) arm of the UPR was activated, as the expression of both activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4) and CHOP (DDIT3), critical regulators of the pathway, was altered after infection. Expression of the transcription factor early growth response 1 (EGR1) was induced in a PERK-dependent manner. EGR1−/− mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) demonstrated lower susceptibility to VEEV-induced cell death than isogenic wild-type MEFs, indicating that EGR1 modulates proapoptotic pathways following VEEV infection. The influence of EGR1 is of great importance, as neuronal damage can lead to long-term sequelae in individuals who have survived VEEV infection. IMPORTANCE Alphaviruses represent a group of clinically relevant viruses transmitted by mosquitoes to humans. In severe cases, viral spread targets neuronal tissue, resulting in significant and life-threatening inflammation dependent on a combination of virus-host interactions. Currently there are no therapeutics for infections cause by encephalitic alphaviruses due to an incomplete understanding of their molecular pathogenesis. Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) is an alphavirus that is prevalent in the Americas and that is capable of infecting horses and humans. Here we utilized next-generation RNA sequencing to identify differential alterations in VEEV-infected astrocytes. Our results indicated that the abundance of transcripts associated with the interferon and the unfolded protein response pathways was altered following infection and demonstrated that early growth response 1 (EGR1) contributed to VEEV-induced cell death.
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Phosphorylation of Single Stranded RNA Virus Proteins and Potential for Novel Therapeutic Strategies. Viruses 2015; 7:5257-73. [PMID: 26473910 PMCID: PMC4632380 DOI: 10.3390/v7102872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2015] [Revised: 09/23/2015] [Accepted: 09/29/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Post translational modification of proteins is a critical requirement that regulates function. Among the diverse kinds of protein post translational modifications, phosphorylation plays essential roles in protein folding, protein:protein interactions, signal transduction, intracellular localization, transcription regulation, cell cycle progression, survival and apoptosis. Protein phosphorylation is also essential for many intracellular pathogens to establish a productive infection cycle. Preservation of protein phosphorylation moieties in pathogens in a manner that mirrors the host components underscores the co-evolutionary trajectory of pathogens and hosts, and sheds light on how successful pathogens have usurped, either in part or as a whole, the host enzymatic machinery. Phosphorylation of viral proteins for many acute RNA viruses including Flaviviruses and Alphaviruses has been demonstrated to be critical for protein functionality. This review focuses on phosphorylation modifications that have been documented to occur on viral proteins with emphasis on acutely infectious, single stranded RNA viruses. The review additionally explores the possibility of repurposing Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved inhibitors as antivirals for the treatment of acute RNA viral infections.
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Honnold SP, Mossel EC, Bakken RR, Lind CM, Cohen JW, Eccleston LT, Spurgers KB, Erwin-Cohen R, Glass PJ, Maheshwari RK. Eastern equine encephalitis virus in mice II: pathogenesis is dependent on route of exposure. Virol J 2015; 12:154. [PMID: 26423229 PMCID: PMC4589026 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-015-0385-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2015] [Accepted: 09/16/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV) is an alphavirus with a case fatality rate estimated to be as high as 75 % in humans and 90 % in horses. Surviving patients often have long-lasting and severe neurological sequelae. At present, there is no licensed vaccine or therapeutic for EEEV infection. This study completes the clinical and pathological analysis of mice infected with a North American strain of EEEV by three different routes: aerosol, intranasal, and subcutaneous. Such an understanding is imperative for use of the mouse model in vaccine and antiviral drug development. METHODS Twelve-week-old female BALB/c mice were infected with EEEV strain FL93-939 by the intranasal, aerosol, or subcutaneous route. Mice were euthanized 6 hpi through 8 dpi and tissues were harvested for histopathological and immunohistochemical analysis. RESULTS Viral antigen was detected in the olfactory bulb as early as 1-2 dpi in aerosol and intranasal infected mice. However, histologic lesions in the brain were evident about 24 hours earlier (3 dpi vs 4 dpi), and were more pronounced following aerosol infection relative to intranasal infection. Following subcutaneous infection, viral antigen was also detected in the olfactory bulb, though not as routinely or as early. Significant histologic lesions were not observed until 6 dpi. CONCLUSION These pathologic studies suggest EEEV enters the brain through the olfactory system when mice are exposed via the intranasal and aerosol routes. In contrast, the histopathologic lesions were delayed in the subcutaneous group and it appears the virus may utilize both the vascular and olfactory routes to enter the brain when mice are exposed to EEEV subcutaneously.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shelley P Honnold
- Virology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD, 21702, USA. .,Department of Pathology, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, 4301 Jones Bridge Road, Bethesda, MD, 20814, USA.
| | - Eric C Mossel
- Virology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD, 21702, USA.
| | - Russell R Bakken
- Virology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD, 21702, USA.
| | - Cathleen M Lind
- Virology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD, 21702, USA.
| | - Jeffrey W Cohen
- Virology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD, 21702, USA.
| | - Lori T Eccleston
- Virology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD, 21702, USA.
| | - Kevin B Spurgers
- Virology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD, 21702, USA.
| | - Rebecca Erwin-Cohen
- Virology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD, 21702, USA.
| | - Pamela J Glass
- Virology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD, 21702, USA.
| | - Radha K Maheshwari
- Department of Pathology, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, 4301 Jones Bridge Road, Bethesda, MD, 20814, USA.
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Eastern equine encephalitis virus in mice I: clinical course and outcome are dependent on route of exposure. Virol J 2015; 12:152. [PMID: 26420265 PMCID: PMC4588493 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-015-0386-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2015] [Accepted: 09/15/2015] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV), an arbovirus, is an important human and veterinary pathogen belonging to one of seven antigenic complexes in the genus Alphavirus, family Togaviridae. EEEV is considered the most deadly of the mosquito-borne alphaviruses due to the high case fatality rate associated with clinical infections, reaching up to 75 % in humans and 90 % in horses. In patients that survive acute infection, neurologic sequelae are often devastating. Although natural infections are acquired by mosquito bite, EEEV is also highly infectious by aerosol. This fact, along with the relative ease of production and stability of this virus, has led it to being identified as a potential agent of bioterrorism. Methods To characterize the clinical course and outcome of EEEV strain FL93-939 infection, we compared clinical parameters, cytokine expression, viremia, and viral titers in numerous tissues of mice exposed by various routes. Twelve-week-old female BALB/c mice were infected by the intranasal, aerosol, or subcutaneous route. Mice were monitored for clinical signs of disease and euthanized at specified time points (6 hpi through 8 dpi). Blood and tissues were harvested for cytokine analysis and/or viral titer determination. Results Although all groups of animals exhibited similar clinical signs after inoculation, the onset and severity differed. The majority of those animals exposed by the aerosol route developed severe clinical signs by 4 dpi. Significant differences were also observed in the viral titers of target tissues, with virus being detected in the brain at 6 hpi in the aerosol study. Conclusion The clinical course and outcome of EEEV infection in mice is dependent on route of exposure. Aerosol exposure to EEEV results in acute onset of clinical signs, rapid neuroinvasion, and 100 % mortality. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12985-015-0386-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Bocan TM, Panchal RG, Bavari S. Applications of in vivo imaging in the evaluation of the pathophysiology of viral and bacterial infections and in development of countermeasures to BSL3/4 pathogens. Mol Imaging Biol 2015; 17:4-17. [PMID: 25008802 PMCID: PMC4544652 DOI: 10.1007/s11307-014-0759-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
While preclinical and clinical imaging have been applied to drug discovery/development and characterization of disease pathology, few examples exist where imaging has been used to evaluate infectious agents or countermeasures to biosafety level (BSL)3/4 threat agents. Viruses engineered with reporter constructs, i.e., enzymes and receptors, which are amenable to detection by positron emission tomography (PET), single photon emission tomography (SPECT), or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) have been used to evaluate the biodistribution of viruses containing specific therapeutic or gene transfer payloads. Bioluminescence and nuclear approaches involving engineered reporters, direct labeling of bacteria with radiotracers, or tracking bacteria through their constitutively expressed thymidine kinase have been utilized to characterize viral and bacterial pathogens post-infection. Most PET, SPECT, CT, or MRI approaches have focused on evaluating host responses to the pathogens such as inflammation, brain neurochemistry, and structural changes and on assessing the biodistribution of radiolabeled drugs. Imaging has the potential when applied preclinically to the development of countermeasures against BSL3/4 threat agents to address the following: (1) presence, biodistribution, and time course of infection in the presence or absence of drug; (2) binding of the therapeutic to the target; and (3) expression of a pharmacologic effect either related to drug mechanism, efficacy, or safety. Preclinical imaging could potentially provide real-time dynamic tools to characterize the pathogen and animal model and for developing countermeasures under the U.S. FDA Animal Rule provision with high confidence of success and clinical benefit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas M Bocan
- Molecular and Translational Sciences, US Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), 1425 Porter Street, Ft. Detrick, MD, 21702, USA,
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Bermúdez J, Valero N, Mosquera J, Vargas R, Hernández-Fonseca JP, Quiroz Y, Godoy R. Role of angiotensin II in experimental Venezuelan equine encephalitis in rats. Arch Virol 2015; 160:2395-405. [PMID: 26156105 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-015-2521-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2014] [Accepted: 06/30/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE) is a viral disease transmitted by mosquitoes. The inflammation induced by the VEE virus is associated with a high mortality rate in mice. Angiotensin II (Ang II), a pro-inflammatory molecule, is produced in the normal rat brain. There is no information about the role of this molecule in the inflammatory events occurring during VEE and the effect of inflammation on the mortality rate in VEE-virus-infected rats. This study was designed to determine the role of Ang II in VEE and to analyze the effect of inflammation on mortality in infected rats. Two groups of rats were studied: 1) Virus-infected animals and controls (n = 60) were treated with losartan (a blocker of the Ang II-AT1 receptor) or with pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate (PDTC, an inhibitor of NF-κB) or left untreated and analyzed for morbidity and mortality. 2) Animals treated using the same protocol (n = 30) were sacrificed at day 4 postinfection and analyzed by immunohistochemistry and histopathology and for cytokine production. Increased expression of Ang II, ICAM-1, ED-1 and cytokines (IL-1α, MCP-1, IL-6 and IL-10) in infected animals was observed. The main histopathology findings were dilated capillaries and capillaries with endothelial detachment. Losartan and PDTC reduced the expression of IL-1α, MCP-1, and IL-10, and the number of dilated capillaries and capillaries with endothelial detachment. Survival analysis showed that 100% mortality was reached earlier in infected rats treated with losartan (day 14) or PDTC (day 11) than in untreated animals (day 19). These findings suggest that Ang II plays a role in VEE and that brain inflammation is protective against viral infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Bermúdez
- Instituto de Investigaciones Clínicas "Dr. Américo Negrette", Facultad de Medicina, Universidad del Zulia, Apartado Postal 23, Maracaibo, 4001, Zulia, Venezuela
| | - Nereida Valero
- Instituto de Investigaciones Clínicas "Dr. Américo Negrette", Facultad de Medicina, Universidad del Zulia, Apartado Postal 23, Maracaibo, 4001, Zulia, Venezuela.,Sociedad Venezolana de Microbiología, Caracas, Venezuela
| | - Jesús Mosquera
- Instituto de Investigaciones Clínicas "Dr. Américo Negrette", Facultad de Medicina, Universidad del Zulia, Apartado Postal 23, Maracaibo, 4001, Zulia, Venezuela.
| | - Renata Vargas
- Instituto de Investigaciones Clínicas "Dr. Américo Negrette", Facultad de Medicina, Universidad del Zulia, Apartado Postal 23, Maracaibo, 4001, Zulia, Venezuela
| | - Juan P Hernández-Fonseca
- Instituto de Investigaciones Clínicas "Dr. Américo Negrette", Facultad de Medicina, Universidad del Zulia, Apartado Postal 23, Maracaibo, 4001, Zulia, Venezuela
| | - Yasmir Quiroz
- Centro de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas (IVIC), Maracaibo, Venezuela
| | - Rosario Godoy
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, Ciencia y Salud, Universidad del Zulia, Maracaibo, Venezuela
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Rossi SL, Russell-Lodrigue KE, Killeen SZ, Wang E, Leal G, Bergren NA, Vinet-Oliphant H, Weaver SC, Roy CJ. IRES-Containing VEEV Vaccine Protects Cynomolgus Macaques from IE Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis Virus Aerosol Challenge. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2015; 9:e0003797. [PMID: 26020513 PMCID: PMC4447396 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0003797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2014] [Accepted: 04/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) is an arbovirus endemic to the Americas that is responsible for severe, sometimes fatal, disease in humans and horses. We previously described an IRES-based VEE vaccine candidate based up the IE serotype that offers complete protection against a lethal subtype IE VEEV challenge in mice. Here we demonstrate the IRES-based vaccine’s ability to protect against febrile disease in cynomolgus macaques. Vaccination was well tolerated and elicited robust neutralizing antibody titers noticed as early as day 14. Moreover, complete protection from disease characterized by absence of viremia and characteristic fever following aerosolized IE VEEV challenge was observed in all vaccinees compared to control animals, which developed clinical disease. Together, these results highlight the safety and efficacy of IRES-based VEEV vaccine to protect against an endemic, pathogenic VEEV IE serotype. Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) is a mosquito-borne arbovirus endemic to the Americas that affects a wide range of equids and humans. Vaccination has been one of the strategies to combat spread of disease in areas with high rates incidence of VEEV, although existing vaccines have proven less than effective against genetically diverse serotypes. In addition to being a natural vectorborne threat, VEEV is considered a biological threat agent that could be used as a weapon. We evaluated a new Internal Ribosome Entry Site (IRES)-containing chimeric viral vaccine using an advanced nonhuman primate model of VEEV infection. Vaccinated animals showed robust humoral immune responses to a single prime immunization with IE VEEV/IRES vaccine. The vaccine protected against an aerosolized IE (68U201) challenge, with vaccinees showing no blood viremia or development of febrile disease, including no pyrexia associated with VEEV infection. This vaccine product has shown efficacy against serotype-specific challenge model and provides enabling data as the basis for future clinical development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shannan L. Rossi
- Institute of Human Infection and Immunity, Sealy Center for Vaccine Development and Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Kasi E. Russell-Lodrigue
- Divisions of Veterinary Medicine and Microbiology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Covington, Louisiana, United States of America
| | - Stephanie Z. Killeen
- Divisions of Veterinary Medicine and Microbiology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Covington, Louisiana, United States of America
| | - Eryu Wang
- Institute of Human Infection and Immunity, Sealy Center for Vaccine Development and Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Grace Leal
- Institute of Human Infection and Immunity, Sealy Center for Vaccine Development and Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Nicholas A. Bergren
- Institute of Human Infection and Immunity, Sealy Center for Vaccine Development and Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Heather Vinet-Oliphant
- Divisions of Veterinary Medicine and Microbiology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Covington, Louisiana, United States of America
| | - Scott C. Weaver
- Institute of Human Infection and Immunity, Sealy Center for Vaccine Development and Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, United States of America
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Chad J. Roy
- Divisions of Veterinary Medicine and Microbiology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Covington, Louisiana, United States of America
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Tulane School of Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana, United States of America
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The ubiquitin proteasome system plays a role in venezuelan equine encephalitis virus infection. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0124792. [PMID: 25927990 PMCID: PMC4415917 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0124792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2014] [Accepted: 03/11/2015] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Many viruses have been implicated in utilizing or modulating the Ubiquitin Proteasome System (UPS) to enhance viral multiplication and/or to sustain a persistent infection. The mosquito-borne Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) belongs to the Togaviridae family and is an important biodefense pathogen and select agent. There are currently no approved vaccines or therapies for VEEV infections; therefore, it is imperative to identify novel targets for therapeutic development. We hypothesized that a functional UPS is required for efficient VEEV multiplication. We have shown that at non-toxic concentrations Bortezomib, a FDA-approved inhibitor of the proteasome, proved to be a potent inhibitor of VEEV multiplication in the human astrocytoma cell line U87MG. Bortezomib inhibited the virulent Trinidad donkey (TrD) strain and the attenuated TC-83 strain of VEEV. Additional studies with virulent strains of Eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV) and Western equine encephalitis virus (WEEV) demonstrated that Bortezomib is a broad spectrum inhibitor of the New World alphaviruses. Time-of-addition assays showed that Bortezomib was an effective inhibitor of viral multiplication even when the drug was introduced many hours post exposure to the virus. Mass spectrometry analyses indicated that the VEEV capsid protein is ubiquitinated in infected cells, which was validated by confocal microscopy and immunoprecipitation assays. Subsequent studies revealed that capsid is ubiquitinated on K48 during early stages of infection which was affected by Bortezomib treatment. This study will aid future investigations in identifying host proteins as potential broad spectrum therapeutic targets for treating alphavirus infections.
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Barraza SJ, Delekta PC, Sindac JA, Dobry CJ, Xiang J, Keep RF, Miller DJ, Larsen SD. Discovery of anthranilamides as a novel class of inhibitors of neurotropic alphavirus replication. Bioorg Med Chem 2015; 23:1569-87. [PMID: 25740634 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2015.01.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2014] [Revised: 01/22/2015] [Accepted: 01/30/2015] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Neurotropic alphaviruses are debilitating pathogens that infect the central nervous system (CNS) and are transmitted to humans via mosquitoes. There exist no effective human vaccines against these viruses, underlining the need for effective antivirals, but no antiviral drugs are available for treating infection once the viruses have invaded the CNS. Previously, we reported the development of novel indole-2-carboxamide-based inhibitors of alphavirus replication that demonstrate significant reduction of viral titer and achieve measurable brain permeation in a pharmacokinetic mouse model. Herein we report our continued efforts to improve physicochemical properties predictive of in vivo blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability through reduction of overall molecular weight, replacing the indole core with a variety of aromatic and non-aromatic monocyclics. These studies culminated in the identification of simple anthranilamides that retain excellent potency with improved metabolic stability and significantly greater aqueous solubility. Furthermore, in a live virus study, we showed that two new compounds were capable of reducing viral titer by two orders of magnitude and that these compounds likely exert their effects through a mechanism similar to that of our indole-2-carboxamide inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott J Barraza
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, United States
| | - Philip C Delekta
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, United States
| | - Janice A Sindac
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, United States
| | - Craig J Dobry
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, United States
| | - Jianming Xiang
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, United States
| | - Richard F Keep
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, United States
| | - David J Miller
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, United States; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, United States.
| | - Scott D Larsen
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, United States; Vahlteich Medicinal Chemistry Core, College of Pharmacy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, United States.
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73
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Blakely PK, Delekta PC, Miller DJ, Irani DN. Manipulation of host factors optimizes the pathogenesis of western equine encephalitis virus infections in mice for antiviral drug development. J Neurovirol 2014; 21:43-55. [PMID: 25361697 DOI: 10.1007/s13365-014-0297-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2014] [Revised: 09/18/2014] [Accepted: 09/24/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
While alphaviruses spread naturally via mosquito vectors, some can also be transmitted as aerosols making them potential bioterrorism agents. One such pathogen, western equine encephalitis virus (WEEV), causes fatal human encephalitis via multiple routes of infection and thus presumably via multiple mechanisms. Although WEEV also produces acute encephalitis in non-human primates, a small animal model that recapitulates features of human disease would be useful for both pathogenesis studies and to evaluate candidate antiviral therapies. We have optimized conditions to infect mice with a low passage isolate of WEEV, thereby allowing detailed investigation of virus tropism, replication, neuroinvasion, and neurovirulence. We find that host factors strongly influence disease outcome, and in particular, that age, gender, and genetic background all have significant effects on disease susceptibility independent of virus tropism or replication within the central nervous system. Our data show that experimental variables can be adjusted in mice to recapitulate disease features known to occur in both non-human primates and humans, thus aiding further study of WEEV pathogenesis and providing a realistic therapeutic window for antiviral drug delivery.
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MESH Headings
- Administration, Intranasal
- Alphavirus Infections/pathology
- Alphavirus Infections/virology
- Animals
- Behavior, Animal
- Cognition
- Disease Models, Animal
- Encephalitis Virus, Western Equine/pathogenicity
- Encephalitis Virus, Western Equine/physiology
- Host Specificity
- Injections, Intraperitoneal
- Injections, Subcutaneous
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred BALB C
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Inbred DBA
- RNA, Viral/blood
- Seizures/pathology
- Seizures/virology
- Species Specificity
- Viral Load
- Virus Replication
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Affiliation(s)
- Pennelope K Blakely
- Department of Neurology, University of Michigan Medical School, 4007 Biomedical Sciences Research Building, 109 Zina Pitcher Place, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109-2200, USA
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74
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Novel indole-2-carboxamide compounds are potent broad-spectrum antivirals active against western equine encephalitis virus in vivo. J Virol 2014; 88:11199-214. [PMID: 25031353 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01671-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurotropic alphaviruses, including western, eastern, and Venezuelan equine encephalitis viruses, cause serious and potentially fatal central nervous system infections in humans for which no currently approved therapies exist. We previously identified a series of thieno[3,2-b]pyrrole derivatives as novel inhibitors of neurotropic alphavirus replication, using a cell-based phenotypic assay (W. Peng et al., J. Infect. Dis. 199:950-957, 2009, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/597275), and subsequently developed second- and third-generation indole-2-carboxamide derivatives with improved potency, solubility, and metabolic stability (J. A. Sindac et al., J. Med. Chem. 55:3535-3545, 2012, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jm300214e; J. A. Sindac et al., J. Med. Chem. 56:9222-9241, 2013, http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jm401330r). In this report, we describe the antiviral activity of the most promising third-generation lead compound, CCG205432, and closely related analogs CCG206381 and CCG209023. These compounds have half-maximal inhibitory concentrations of ∼1 μM and selectivity indices of >100 in cell-based assays using western equine encephalitis virus replicons. Furthermore, CCG205432 retains similar potency against fully infectious virus in cultured human neuronal cells. These compounds show broad inhibitory activity against a range of RNA viruses in culture, including members of the Togaviridae, Bunyaviridae, Picornaviridae, and Paramyxoviridae families. Although their exact molecular target remains unknown, mechanism-of-action studies reveal that these novel indole-based compounds target a host factor that modulates cap-dependent translation. Finally, we demonstrate that both CCG205432 and CCG209023 dampen clinical disease severity and enhance survival of mice given a lethal western equine encephalitis virus challenge. These studies demonstrate that indole-2-carboxamide compounds are viable candidates for continued preclinical development as inhibitors of neurotropic alphaviruses and, potentially, of other RNA viruses. IMPORTANCE There are currently no approved drugs to treat infections with alphaviruses. We previously identified a novel series of compounds with activity against these potentially devastating pathogens (J. A. Sindac et al., J. Med. Chem. 55:3535-3545, 2012, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jm300214e; W. Peng et al., J. Infect. Dis. 199:950-957, 2009, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/597275; J. A. Sindac et al., J. Med. Chem. 56:9222-9241, 2013, http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jm401330r). We have now produced third-generation compounds with enhanced potency, and this manuscript provides detailed information on the antiviral activity of these advanced-generation compounds, including activity in an animal model. The results of this study represent a notable achievement in the continued development of this novel class of antiviral inhibitors.
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75
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Wolfe DN, Heppner DG, Gardner SN, Jaing C, Dupuy LC, Schmaljohn CS, Carlton K. Current strategic thinking for the development of a trivalent alphavirus vaccine for human use. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2014; 91:442-50. [PMID: 24842880 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.14-0055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Vaccinations against the encephalitic alphaviruses (western, eastern, and Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus) are of significant interest to biological defense, public health, and agricultural communities alike. Although vaccines licensed for veterinary applications are used in the Western Hemisphere and attenuated or inactivated viruses have been used under Investigational New Drug status to protect at-risk personnel, there are currently no licensed vaccines for use in humans. Here, we will discuss the need for a trivalent vaccine that can protect humans against all three viruses, recent progress to such a vaccine, and a strategy to continue development to Food and Drug Administration licensure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel N Wolfe
- Chemical and Biological Technologies Department, Defense Threat Reduction Agency, Fort Belvoir, Virginia; TASC, Inc., Lorton, Virginia; Computations/Global Security, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California; Physical and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California; US Army Medical Research Institute for Infectious Diseases, Fort Detrick, Maryland; Joint Vaccine Acquisition Program, Medical Countermeasure Systems, Joint Program Executive Office, Fort Detrick, Maryland
| | - D Gray Heppner
- Chemical and Biological Technologies Department, Defense Threat Reduction Agency, Fort Belvoir, Virginia; TASC, Inc., Lorton, Virginia; Computations/Global Security, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California; Physical and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California; US Army Medical Research Institute for Infectious Diseases, Fort Detrick, Maryland; Joint Vaccine Acquisition Program, Medical Countermeasure Systems, Joint Program Executive Office, Fort Detrick, Maryland
| | - Shea N Gardner
- Chemical and Biological Technologies Department, Defense Threat Reduction Agency, Fort Belvoir, Virginia; TASC, Inc., Lorton, Virginia; Computations/Global Security, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California; Physical and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California; US Army Medical Research Institute for Infectious Diseases, Fort Detrick, Maryland; Joint Vaccine Acquisition Program, Medical Countermeasure Systems, Joint Program Executive Office, Fort Detrick, Maryland
| | - Crystal Jaing
- Chemical and Biological Technologies Department, Defense Threat Reduction Agency, Fort Belvoir, Virginia; TASC, Inc., Lorton, Virginia; Computations/Global Security, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California; Physical and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California; US Army Medical Research Institute for Infectious Diseases, Fort Detrick, Maryland; Joint Vaccine Acquisition Program, Medical Countermeasure Systems, Joint Program Executive Office, Fort Detrick, Maryland
| | - Lesley C Dupuy
- Chemical and Biological Technologies Department, Defense Threat Reduction Agency, Fort Belvoir, Virginia; TASC, Inc., Lorton, Virginia; Computations/Global Security, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California; Physical and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California; US Army Medical Research Institute for Infectious Diseases, Fort Detrick, Maryland; Joint Vaccine Acquisition Program, Medical Countermeasure Systems, Joint Program Executive Office, Fort Detrick, Maryland
| | - Connie S Schmaljohn
- Chemical and Biological Technologies Department, Defense Threat Reduction Agency, Fort Belvoir, Virginia; TASC, Inc., Lorton, Virginia; Computations/Global Security, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California; Physical and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California; US Army Medical Research Institute for Infectious Diseases, Fort Detrick, Maryland; Joint Vaccine Acquisition Program, Medical Countermeasure Systems, Joint Program Executive Office, Fort Detrick, Maryland
| | - Kevin Carlton
- Chemical and Biological Technologies Department, Defense Threat Reduction Agency, Fort Belvoir, Virginia; TASC, Inc., Lorton, Virginia; Computations/Global Security, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California; Physical and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California; US Army Medical Research Institute for Infectious Diseases, Fort Detrick, Maryland; Joint Vaccine Acquisition Program, Medical Countermeasure Systems, Joint Program Executive Office, Fort Detrick, Maryland
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76
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Ong RY, Lum FM, Ng LFP. The fine line between protection and pathology in neurotropic flavivirus and alphavirus infections. Future Virol 2014. [DOI: 10.2217/fvl.14.6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT: Flavivirus and alphavirus are two families of medically important arboviruses known to cause devastating neurologic disease. Exciting knowledge regarding epidemiology, disease and host immune responses are constantly unraveling. In this review, we aim to piece existing knowledge of neurotropic flavi- and alpha-viruses into a general, coherent picture of host–pathogen interactions. Special interest lies in the protective and pathologic host immunity to flavi- and alpha-viral infections, with a strong focus on West Nile virus, Japanese Encephalitis virus and Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus as representatives of their family.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruo-Yan Ong
- Laboratory of Chikungunya Virus Immunity, Singapore Immunology Network, Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), 8A Biomedical Grove, #04–06 Immunos Biopolis, 138648, Singapore
| | - Fok-Moon Lum
- Laboratory of Chikungunya Virus Immunity, Singapore Immunology Network, Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), 8A Biomedical Grove, #04–06 Immunos Biopolis, 138648, Singapore
- Department of Biochemistry, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, 117597, Singapore
| | - Lisa FP Ng
- Laboratory of Chikungunya Virus Immunity, Singapore Immunology Network, Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), 8A Biomedical Grove, #04–06 Immunos Biopolis, 138648, Singapore
- Department of Biochemistry, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, 117597, Singapore
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77
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Amaya M, Voss K, Sampey G, Senina S, de la Fuente C, Mueller C, Calvert V, Kehn-Hall K, Carpenter C, Kashanchi F, Bailey C, Mogelsvang S, Petricoin E, Narayanan A. The role of IKKβ in Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus infection. PLoS One 2014; 9:e86745. [PMID: 24586253 PMCID: PMC3929299 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0086745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2013] [Accepted: 12/13/2013] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) belongs to the genus Alphavirus, family Togaviridae. VEEV infection is characterized by extensive inflammation and studies from other laboratories implicated an involvement of the NF-κB cascade in the in vivo pathology. Initial studies indicated that at early time points of VEEV infection, the NF-κB complex was activated in cells infected with the TC-83 strain of VEEV. One upstream kinase that contributes to the phosphorylation of p65 is the IKKβ component of the IKK complex. Our previous studies with Rift valley fever virus, which exhibited early activation of the NF-κB cascade in infected cells, had indicated that the IKKβ component underwent macromolecular reorganization to form a novel low molecular weight form unique to infected cells. This prompted us to investigate if the IKK complex undergoes a comparable macromolecular reorganization in VEEV infection. Size-fractionated VEEV infected cell extracts indicated a macromolecular reorganization of IKKβ in VEEV infected cells that resulted in formation of lower molecular weight complexes. Well-documented inhibitors of IKKβ function, BAY-11-7082, BAY-11-7085 and IKK2 compound IV, were employed to determine whether IKKβ function was required for the production of infectious progeny virus. A decrease in infectious viral particles and viral RNA copies was observed with inhibitor treatment in the attenuated and virulent strains of VEEV infection. In order to further validate the requirement of IKKβ for VEEV replication, we over-expressed IKKβ in cells and observed an increase in viral titers. In contrast, studies carried out using IKKβ(-/-) cells demonstrated a decrease in VEEV replication. In vivo studies demonstrated that inhibitor treatment of TC-83 infected mice increased their survival. Finally, proteomics studies have revealed that IKKβ may interact with the viral protein nsP3. In conclusion, our studies have revealed that the host IKKβ protein may be critically involved in VEEV replication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moushimi Amaya
- National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Kelsey Voss
- National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Gavin Sampey
- National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Svetlana Senina
- National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Cynthia de la Fuente
- National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Claudius Mueller
- Center for Applied Proteomics and Personalized Medicine, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Valerie Calvert
- Center for Applied Proteomics and Personalized Medicine, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Kylene Kehn-Hall
- National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Calvin Carpenter
- National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Fatah Kashanchi
- National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Charles Bailey
- National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia, United States of America
| | | | - Emanuel Petricoin
- Center for Applied Proteomics and Personalized Medicine, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Aarthi Narayanan
- National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Ma J, Wang H, Zheng X, Xue X, Wang B, Wu H, Zhang K, Fan S, Wang T, Li N, Zhao Y, Gao Y, Yang S, Xia X. CpG/Poly (I:C) mixed adjuvant priming enhances the immunogenicity of a DNA vaccine against eastern equine encephalitis virus in mice. Int Immunopharmacol 2014; 19:74-80. [PMID: 24440303 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2014.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2013] [Revised: 01/06/2014] [Accepted: 01/06/2014] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV) poses a serious public health threat in many countries. Therefore, developing efficient vaccine against EEEV remains an important challenge in the field of disease control. To identify immunogenic proteins in EEEV, we constructed an expression vector containing the protein coding genes C, E3, E2, 6k, and E1 (pcDNA3.1-C-E). After verifying the target gene expression in 293 T cells, we immunized BALB/c mice with the pcDNA3.1-C-E vector as a DNA vaccine in conjunction with either CpG or poly (I:C) or a mixture of both adjuvants and monitored various aspects of the immune response. After two immunizations, the mice vaccinated with antigen plus mixed CpG/poly (I:C) adjuvant exhibited significantly stronger IFN-gamma responses and generated high-level CD4(+) cell responses for the cytokines IL-2, IL-4, and IFN-γ and CD8(+) T cell responses for the cytokines IL-2 and IFN-γ compared to the mice vaccinated with the corresponding antigen plus CpG or poly(I:C) alone. In addition, the higher antibody titers against EEEV effectively neutralized the EEEV pseudoviruses in the group immunized with antigen plus mixed CpG/poly (I:C) adjuvant after tertiary immunization. This study demonstrates that the pcDNA3.1-C-E plasmids in conjunction with mixed CpG/poly (I:C) adjuvant priming maximize the cellular immune response and specific antibody generation in mice. Moreover, this mixed adjuvant priming provides a promising strategy for enhancing the immune effectiveness of a DNA vaccine against EEEV.
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Affiliation(s)
- JinZhu Ma
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, Heilongjiang Province, China; The Military Veterinary Institute, Academy of Military Medical Science of PLA, Changchun 130122, Jilin Province, China; College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, Heilongjiang Province, China
| | - HuaLei Wang
- The Military Veterinary Institute, Academy of Military Medical Science of PLA, Changchun 130122, Jilin Province, China
| | - XueXing Zheng
- The Military Veterinary Institute, Academy of Military Medical Science of PLA, Changchun 130122, Jilin Province, China
| | - XiangHong Xue
- The Military Veterinary Institute, Academy of Military Medical Science of PLA, Changchun 130122, Jilin Province, China
| | - BeiYan Wang
- College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, Heilongjiang Province, China
| | - HongXia Wu
- The Military Veterinary Institute, Academy of Military Medical Science of PLA, Changchun 130122, Jilin Province, China
| | - Kun Zhang
- The Military Veterinary Institute, Academy of Military Medical Science of PLA, Changchun 130122, Jilin Province, China
| | - ShengTao Fan
- The Military Veterinary Institute, Academy of Military Medical Science of PLA, Changchun 130122, Jilin Province, China
| | - TieCheng Wang
- The Military Veterinary Institute, Academy of Military Medical Science of PLA, Changchun 130122, Jilin Province, China
| | - Nan Li
- The Military Veterinary Institute, Academy of Military Medical Science of PLA, Changchun 130122, Jilin Province, China
| | - YongKun Zhao
- The Military Veterinary Institute, Academy of Military Medical Science of PLA, Changchun 130122, Jilin Province, China
| | - YuWei Gao
- The Military Veterinary Institute, Academy of Military Medical Science of PLA, Changchun 130122, Jilin Province, China
| | - SongTao Yang
- The Military Veterinary Institute, Academy of Military Medical Science of PLA, Changchun 130122, Jilin Province, China.
| | - XianZhu Xia
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, Heilongjiang Province, China; The Military Veterinary Institute, Academy of Military Medical Science of PLA, Changchun 130122, Jilin Province, China.
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Discovery of potent broad spectrum antivirals derived from marine actinobacteria. PLoS One 2013; 8:e82318. [PMID: 24349254 PMCID: PMC3857800 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0082318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2013] [Accepted: 10/29/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural products provide a vast array of chemical structures to explore in the discovery of new medicines. Although secondary metabolites produced by microbes have been developed to treat a variety of diseases, including bacterial and fungal infections, to date there has been limited investigation of natural products with antiviral activity. In this report, we used a phenotypic cell-based replicon assay coupled with an iterative biochemical fractionation process to identify, purify, and characterize antiviral compounds produced by marine microbes. We isolated a compound from Streptomyces kaviengensis, a novel actinomycetes isolated from marine sediments obtained off the coast of New Ireland, Papua New Guinea, which we identified as antimycin A1a. This compound displays potent activity against western equine encephalitis virus in cultured cells with half-maximal inhibitory concentrations of less than 4 nM and a selectivity index of greater than 550. Our efforts also revealed that several antimycin A analogues display antiviral activity, and mechanism of action studies confirmed that these Streptomyces-derived secondary metabolites function by inhibiting the cellular mitochondrial electron transport chain, thereby suppressing de novo pyrimidine synthesis. Furthermore, we found that antimycin A functions as a broad spectrum agent with activity against a wide range of RNA viruses in cultured cells, including members of the Togaviridae, Flaviviridae, Bunyaviridae, Picornaviridae, and Paramyxoviridae families. Finally, we demonstrate that antimycin A reduces central nervous system viral titers, improves clinical disease severity, and enhances survival in mice given a lethal challenge with western equine encephalitis virus. Our results provide conclusive validation for using natural product resources derived from marine microbes as source material for antiviral drug discovery, and they indicate that host mitochondrial electron transport is a viable target for the continued development of broadly active antiviral compounds.
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80
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Thomas RJ. Particle size and pathogenicity in the respiratory tract. Virulence 2013; 4:847-58. [PMID: 24225380 PMCID: PMC3925716 DOI: 10.4161/viru.27172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2013] [Revised: 11/08/2013] [Accepted: 11/12/2013] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Particle size dictates where aerosolized pathogens deposit in the respiratory tract, thereafter the pathogens potential to cause disease is influenced by tissue tropism, clearance kinetics and the host immunological response. This interplay brings pathogens into contact with a range of tissues spanning the respiratory tract and associated anatomical structures. In animal models, differential deposition within the respiratory tract influences infection kinetics for numerous select agents. Greater numbers of pathogens are required to infect the upper (URT) compared with the lower respiratory tract (LRT), and in comparison the URT infections are protracted with reduced mortality. Pathogenesis in the URT is characterized by infection of the URT lymphoid tissues, cervical lymphadenopathy and septicemia, closely resembling reported human infections of the URT. The olfactory, gastrointestinal, and ophthalmic systems are also infected in a pathogen-dependent manner. The relevant literature is reviewed with respect to particle size and infection of the URT in animal models and humans.
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81
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Rocheleau JP, Arsenault J, Lindsay LR, DiBernardo A, Kulkarni MA, Côté N, Michel P. Eastern equine encephalitis virus: high seroprevalence in horses from Southern Quebec, Canada, 2012. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2013; 13:712-8. [PMID: 23919607 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2012.1242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV) is a highly pathogenic arbovirus that infects humans, horses, and other animals. There has been a significant increase in EEEV activity in southeastern Canada since 2008. Few data are available regarding nonlethal EEEV infections in mammals, and consequently the distribution and pathogenicity spectrum of EEEV infections in these hosts is poorly understood. This cross-sectional study focuses on the evaluation of viral activity in southern Quebec's horses by seroprevalence estimation. A total of 196 horses, 18 months and older, which had never been vaccinated against EEEV and have never traveled outside Canada, were sampled from 92 barns distributed throughout three administrative regions of southern Quebec. Blood samples were taken from each horse and titrated for EEEV antibodies by plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT). Equine population vaccination coverage was estimated by surveying horse owners and equine practitioners. PRNT results revealed an EEEV seroprevalence up to 8.7%, with 95% confidence limits ranging from 4.4% to 13.0%. Vaccination coverage was estimated to be at least 79%. Our study reveals for the first time in Canada a measure of EEEV seroprevalence in horses. High seroprevalence in unvaccinated animals challenges the perception that EEEV is a highly lethal pathogen in horses. Monitoring high-risk vector-borne infections such as EEEV in animal populations can be an important element of a public health surveillance strategy, population risk assessment and early detection of epidemics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Philippe Rocheleau
- 1 Groupe de recherche en épidémiologie des zoonoses et santé publique, Faculté de médecine vétérinaire, Université de Montréal , Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada
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82
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Taylor KG, Paessler S. Pathogenesis of Venezuelan equine encephalitis. Vet Microbiol 2013; 167:145-50. [PMID: 23968890 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2013.07.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2013] [Revised: 07/03/2013] [Accepted: 07/10/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Equine encephalids have high mortality rates and represent a significant zoonotic public health threat. Of these the most pathogenic viruses to equids are the alphaviruses in the family Togaviridae. The focus of this review Venezualen equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) has caused the most widespread and recent epidemic outbreaks of disease. Circulation in naturally occuring rodent-mosquito cycles, results in viral spread to both human and equine populations. However, equines develop a high titer viremia and can transmit the virus back to mosquito populations. As such, the early recognition and control of viral infection in equine populations is strongly associated with prevention of epidemic spread of the virus and limiting of disease incidence in human populations. This review will address identification and pathogenesis of VEEV in equids vaccination and treatment options, and current research for drug and vaccine development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine G Taylor
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77550, United States.
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83
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Kiupel M, Fitzgerald SD, Pennick KE, Cooley TM, O'Brien DJ, Bolin SR, Maes RK, Del Piero F. Distribution of eastern equine encephalomyelitis viral protein and nucleic acid within central nervous tissue lesions in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). Vet Pathol 2013; 50:1058-62. [PMID: 23686767 DOI: 10.1177/0300985813488956] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
An outbreak of eastern equine encephalomyelitis (EEE) occurred in Michigan free-ranging white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) during late summer and fall of 2005. Brain tissue from 7 deer with EEE, as confirmed by reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction, was studied. Detailed microscopic examination, indirect immunohistochemistry (IHC), and in situ hybridization (ISH) were used to characterize the lesions and distribution of the EEE virus within the brain. The main lesion in all 7 deer was a polioencephalomyelitis with leptomeningitis, which was more prominent within the cerebral cortex, thalamus, hypothalamus, and brainstem. In 3 deer, multifocal microhemorrhages surrounded smaller vessels with or without perivascular cuffing, although vasculitis was not observed. Neuronal necrosis, associated with perineuronal satellitosis and neutrophilic neuronophagia, was most prominent in the thalamus and the brainstem. Positive IHC labeling was mainly observed in the perikaryon, axons, and dendrites of necrotic and intact neurons and, to a much lesser degree, in glial cells, a few neutrophils in the thalamus and the brainstem, and occasionally the cerebral cortex of the 7 deer. There was minimal IHC-based labeling in the cerebellum and hippocampus. ISH labeling was exclusively observed in the cytoplasm of neurons, with a distribution similar to IHC-positive neurons. Neurons positive by IHC and ISH were most prominent in the thalamus and brainstem. The neuropathology of EEE in deer is compared with other species. Based on our findings, EEE has to be considered a differential diagnosis for neurologic disease and meningoencephalitis in white-tailed deer.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Kiupel
- Diagnostic Center for Population and Animal Health, 4125 Beaumont Rd 152A, Lansing, MI 48910-8104, USA.
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84
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Wang H, Siddharthan V, Kesler KK, Hall JO, Motter NE, Julander JG, Morrey JD. Fatal neurological respiratory insufficiency is common among viral encephalitides. J Infect Dis 2013; 208:573-83. [PMID: 23641019 PMCID: PMC3719899 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jit186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Background. Neurological respiratory insufficiency strongly correlates with mortality among rodents infected with West Nile virus (WNV), which suggests that this is a primary mechanism of death in rodents and possibly fatal West Nile neurological disease in human patients. Methods. To explore the possibility that neurological respiratory insufficiency is a broad mechanism of death in cases of viral encephalitis, plethysmography was evaluated in mice infected with 3 flaviviruses and 2 alphaviruses. Pathology was investigated by challenging the diaphragm, using electromyography with hypercapnia and optogenetic photoactivation. Results. Among infections due to all but 1 alphavirus, death was strongly associated with a suppressed minute volume. Virally infected mice with a very low minute volume did not neurologically respond to hypercapnia or optogenetic photoactivation of the C4 cervical cord. Neurons with the orexin 1 receptor protein in the ventral C3–5 cervical cord were statistically diminished in WNV-infected mice with a low minute volume as compared to WNV-infected or sham-infected mice without respiratory insufficiency. Also, WNV-infected cells were adjacent to neurons with respiratory functions in the medulla. Conclusions. Detection of a common neurological mechanism of death among viral encephalitides creates opportunities to create broad-spectrum therapies that target relevant neurological cells in patients with types of viral encephalitis that have not been treatable in the past.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Wang
- Institute for Antiviral Research, Department of Animal, Dairy, and Veterinary Sciences, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-4700, USA
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85
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Farmer JR, Altschaefl KM, O'Shea KS, Miller DJ. Activation of the type I interferon pathway is enhanced in response to human neuronal differentiation. PLoS One 2013; 8:e58813. [PMID: 23505563 PMCID: PMC3591356 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0058813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2012] [Accepted: 02/07/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite the crucial role of innate immunity in preventing or controlling pathogen-induced damage in most, if not all, cell types, very little is known about the activity of this essential defense system in central nervous system neurons, especially in humans. In this report we use both an established neuronal cell line model and an embryonic stem cell-based system to examine human neuronal innate immunity and responses to neurotropic alphavirus infection in cultured cells. We demonstrate that neuronal differentiation is associated with increased expression of crucial type I interferon signaling pathway components, including interferon regulatory factor-9 and an interferon receptor heterodimer subunit, which results in enhanced interferon stimulation and subsequent heightened antiviral activity and cytoprotective responses against neurotropic alphaviruses such as western equine encephalitis virus. These results identify important differentiation-dependent changes in innate immune system function that control cell-autonomous neuronal responses. Furthermore, this work demonstrates the utility of human embryonic stem cell-derived cultures as a platform to study the interactions between innate immunity, virus infection, and pathogenesis in central nervous system neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jocelyn R. Farmer
- Departments of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Kate M. Altschaefl
- Department of Epidemiology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States of America
| | - K. Sue O'Shea
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States of America
| | - David J. Miller
- Departments of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States of America
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States of America
- * E-mail: .
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86
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Abstract
As the threat of exposure to emerging and reemerging viruses within a naive population increases, it is vital that the basic mechanisms of pathogenesis and immune response be thoroughly investigated. By using animal models in this endeavor, the response to viruses can be studied in a more natural context to identify novel drug targets, and assess the efficacy and safety of new products. This is especially true in the advent of the Food and Drug Administration's animal rule. Although no one animal model is able to recapitulate all the aspects of human disease, understanding the current limitations allows for a more targeted experimental design. Important facets to be considered before an animal study are the route of challenge, species of animals, biomarkers of disease, and a humane endpoint. This chapter covers the current animal models for medically important human viruses, and demonstrates where the gaps in knowledge exist.
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87
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Thomas RJ, Davies C, Nunez A, Hibbs S, Eastaugh L, Harding S, Jordan J, Barnes K, Oyston P, Eley S. Particle-size dependent effects in the Balb/c murine model of inhalational melioidosis. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2012; 2:101. [PMID: 22919690 PMCID: PMC3417579 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2012.00101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2012] [Accepted: 07/03/2012] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Deposition of Burkholderia pseudomallei within either the lungs or nasal passages of the Balb/c murine model resulted in different infection kinetics. The infection resulting from the inhalation of B. pseudomallei within a 12 μm particle aerosol was prolonged compared to a 1 μm particle aerosol with a mean time-to-death (MTD) of 174.7 ± 14.9 h and 73.8 ± 11.3 h, respectively. Inhalation of B. pseudomallei within 1 μm or 12 μm particle aerosols resulted in a median lethal dose (MLD) of 4 and 12 cfu, respectively. The 12 μm particle inhalational infection was characterized by a marked involvement of the nasal mucosa and extension of bacterial colonization and inflammatory lesions from the olfactory epithelium through the olfactory nerves (or tracts) to the olfactory bulb (100%), culminating in abscessation of the brain (33%). Initial involvement of the upper respiratory tract lymphoid tissues (nasal-associated lymphoid tissue (NALT) and cervical lymph nodes) was observed in both the 1 and 12 μm particle inhalational infections (80-85%). Necrotising alveolitis and bronchiolitis were evident in both inhalational infections, however, lung pathology was greater after inhalation of the 1 μm particle aerosol with pronounced involvement of the mediastinal lymph node (50%). Terminal disease was characterized by bacteraemia in both inhalational infections with dissemination to the spleen, liver, kidneys, and thymus. Treatment with co-trimoxazole was more effective than treatment with doxycycline irrespective of the size of the particles inhaled. Doxycycline was more effective against the 12 μm particle inhalational infection as evidenced by increased time to death. However, both treatment regimes exhibited significant relapse when therapy was discontinued with massive enlargement and abscessation of the lungs, spleen, and cervical lymph nodes observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard J Thomas
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Defence Science and Technology Laboratory, Salisbury Wiltshire, UK.
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88
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Rülker T, Voß L, Thullier P, O' Brien LM, Pelat T, Perkins SD, Langermann C, Schirrmann T, Dübel S, Marschall HJ, Hust M, Hülseweh B. Isolation and characterisation of a human-like antibody fragment (scFv) that inactivates VEEV in vitro and in vivo. PLoS One 2012; 7:e37242. [PMID: 22666347 PMCID: PMC3364240 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0037242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2011] [Accepted: 04/18/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) belongs to the Alphavirus genus and several species of this family are pathogenic to humans. The viruses are classified as potential agents of biological warfare and terrorism and sensitive detection as well as effective prophylaxis and antiviral therapies are required.In this work, we describe the isolation of the anti-VEEV single chain Fragment variable (scFv), ToR67-3B4, from a non-human primate (NHP) antibody gene library. We report its recloning into the bivalent scFv-Fc format and further immunological and biochemical characterisation.The scFv-Fc ToR67-3B4 recognised viable as well as formalin and ß-propionolactone (ß-Pl) inactivated virus particles and could be applied for immunoblot analysis of VEEV proteins and immuno-histochemistry of VEEV infected cells. It detected specifically the viral E1 envelope protein of VEEV but did not react with reduced viral glycoprotein preparations suggesting that recognition depends upon conformational epitopes. The recombinant antibody was able to detect multiple VEEV subtypes and displayed only marginal cross-reactivity to other Alphavirus species except for EEEV. In addition, the scFv-Fc fusion described here might be of therapeutic use since it successfully inactivated VEEV in a murine disease model. When the recombinant antibody was administered 6 hours post challenge, 80% to 100% of mice survived lethal VEEV IA/B or IE infection. Forty to sixty percent of mice survived when scFv-Fc ToR67-3B4 was applied 6 hours post challenge with VEEV subtypes II and former IIIA. In combination with E2-neutralising antibodies the NHP antibody isolated here could significantly improve passive protection as well as generic therapy of VEE.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antibodies, Neutralizing/genetics
- Antibodies, Neutralizing/immunology
- Antibodies, Neutralizing/isolation & purification
- Antibodies, Viral/genetics
- Antibodies, Viral/immunology
- Antibodies, Viral/isolation & purification
- Cloning, Molecular
- Encephalitis Virus, Venezuelan Equine/immunology
- Gene Library
- Genetic Vectors/genetics
- Humans
- Immunization, Passive
- Macaca fascicularis
- Male
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred BALB C
- Recombinant Fusion Proteins/genetics
- Recombinant Fusion Proteins/immunology
- Recombinant Fusion Proteins/isolation & purification
- Sequence Analysis
- Single-Chain Antibodies/genetics
- Single-Chain Antibodies/immunology
- Single-Chain Antibodies/isolation & purification
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Affiliation(s)
- Torsten Rülker
- Technische Universität Braunschweig, Institut für Biochemie und Biotechnologie, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Luzie Voß
- Wehrwissenschaftliches Institut für Schutztechnologien (WIS) – ABC-Schutz, Munster, Germany
| | - Philippe Thullier
- Centre de Recherche du Service de Santé des Armées (CRSSA-IRBA), La Tronche, France
| | - Lyn M. O' Brien
- Defence Science and Technology Laboratory, Biomedical Sciences Department, Porton Down, Salisbury, Wiltshire, United Kingdom
| | - Thibaut Pelat
- Centre de Recherche du Service de Santé des Armées (CRSSA-IRBA), La Tronche, France
| | - Stuart D. Perkins
- Defence Science and Technology Laboratory, Biomedical Sciences Department, Porton Down, Salisbury, Wiltshire, United Kingdom
| | - Claudia Langermann
- Wehrwissenschaftliches Institut für Schutztechnologien (WIS) – ABC-Schutz, Munster, Germany
| | - Thomas Schirrmann
- Technische Universität Braunschweig, Institut für Biochemie und Biotechnologie, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Stefan Dübel
- Technische Universität Braunschweig, Institut für Biochemie und Biotechnologie, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Hans-Jürgen Marschall
- Wehrwissenschaftliches Institut für Schutztechnologien (WIS) – ABC-Schutz, Munster, Germany
| | - Michael Hust
- Technische Universität Braunschweig, Institut für Biochemie und Biotechnologie, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Birgit Hülseweh
- Wehrwissenschaftliches Institut für Schutztechnologien (WIS) – ABC-Schutz, Munster, Germany
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89
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Kehn-Hall K, Narayanan A, Lundberg L, Sampey G, Pinkham C, Guendel I, Van Duyne R, Senina S, Schultz KL, Stavale E, Aman MJ, Bailey C, Kashanchi F. Modulation of GSK-3β activity in Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus infection. PLoS One 2012; 7:e34761. [PMID: 22496857 PMCID: PMC3319612 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0034761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2011] [Accepted: 03/08/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Alphaviruses, including Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis Virus (VEEV), cause disease in both equine and humans that exhibit overt encephalitis in a significant percentage of cases. Features of the host immune response and tissue-specific responses may contribute to fatal outcomes as well as the development of encephalitis. It has previously been shown that VEEV infection of mice induces transcription of pro-inflammatory cytokines genes (e.g., IFN-γ, IL-6, IL-12, iNOS and TNF-α) within 6 h. GSK-3β is a host protein that is known to modulate pro-inflammatory gene expression and has been a therapeutic target in neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's. Hence inhibition of GSK-3β in the context of encephalitic viral infections has been useful in a neuroprotective capacity. Small molecule GSK-3β inhibitors and GSK-3β siRNA experiments indicated that GSK-3β was important for VEEV replication. Thirty-eight second generation BIO derivatives were tested and BIOder was found to be the most potent inhibitor, with an IC50 of ∼0.5 µM and a CC50 of >100 µM. BIOder was a more potent inhibitor of GSK-3β than BIO, as demonstrated through in vitro kinase assays from uninfected and infected cells. Size exclusion chromatography experiments demonstrated that GSK-3β is found in three distinct complexes in VEEV infected cells, whereas GSK-3β is only present in one complex in uninfected cells. Cells treated with BIOder demonstrated an increase in the anti-apoptotic gene, survivin, and a decrease in the pro-apoptotic gene, BID, suggesting that modulation of pro- and anti-apoptotic genes contributes to the protective effect of BIOder treatment. Finally, BIOder partially protected mice from VEEV induced mortality. Our studies demonstrate the utility of GSK-3β inhibitors for modulating VEEV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kylene Kehn-Hall
- National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Aarthi Narayanan
- National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Lindsay Lundberg
- National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Gavin Sampey
- National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Chelsea Pinkham
- National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Irene Guendel
- National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Rachel Van Duyne
- National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia, United States of America
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Tropical Medicine, The George Washington University, Washington, D.C., United States of America
| | - Svetlana Senina
- National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Kimberly L. Schultz
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Eric Stavale
- Integrated Biotherapeutics Inc., Gaithersburg, Maryland, United States of America
| | - M. Javad Aman
- Integrated Biotherapeutics Inc., Gaithersburg, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Charles Bailey
- National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Fatah Kashanchi
- National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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90
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Dupuy LC, Reed DS. Nonhuman primate models of encephalitic alphavirus infection: historical review and future perspectives. Curr Opin Virol 2012; 2:363-7. [PMID: 22709522 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2012.02.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2012] [Revised: 02/23/2012] [Accepted: 02/24/2012] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Venezuelan, western, and eastern equine encephalitis viruses are New World alphaviruses that are recognized as potential agents of biowarfare and bioterrorism owing to their morbidity and mortality in humans, ease of production, considerable stability, and high infectivity in aerosols. As a result, these encephalitic alphaviruses are defined as category B select agents. Studies involving infection of nonhuman primates have been instrumental in gaining an understanding of the in vivo pathogenesis of these viruses and have provided relevant models to evaluate the efficacy of candidate human vaccines. Recent advances have led to refinement and further characterization of these models toward the goal of utility in the licensure of next-generation alphavirus vaccines and therapeutics for use in humans by the Animal Rule.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lesley C Dupuy
- Virology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD 21702-5011, USA
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91
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O'Brien LM, Goodchild SA, Phillpotts RJ, Perkins SD. A humanised murine monoclonal antibody protects mice from Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus, Everglades virus and Mucambo virus when administered up to 48 h after airborne challenge. Virology 2012; 426:100-5. [PMID: 22341308 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2012.01.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2011] [Revised: 01/03/2012] [Accepted: 01/30/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Currently there are no licensed antiviral treatments for the Alphaviruses Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV), Everglades virus and Mucambo virus. We previously developed a humanised version of the mouse monoclonal antibody 1A3B-7 (Hu1A3B-7) which exhibited a wide range of reactivity in vitro and was able to protect mice from infection with VEEV. Continued work with the humanised antibody has now demonstrated that it has the potential to be a new human therapeutic. Hu1A3B-7 successfully protected mice from infection with multiple Alphaviruses. The effectiveness of the humanisation process was determined by assessing proliferation responses in human T-cells to peptides derived from the murine and humanised versions of the V(H) and V(L) domains. This analysis showed that the number of human T-cell epitopes within the humanised antibody had been substantially reduced, indicating that Hu1A3B-7 may have reduced immunogenicity in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lyn M O'Brien
- Biomedical Sciences Department, Defence Science and Technology Laboratory, Porton Down, Salisbury, Wiltshire, SP4 0JQ, UK.
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92
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Sampath A, Metz M, Stundick M, Larsen JC. State-of-the-art therapeutic medical countermeasures for viral threat agents. Biosecur Bioterror 2011; 9:351-60. [PMID: 22053938 DOI: 10.1089/bsp.2011.0047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, there has been an increase in the perceived threat of biological agents being used against civilian populations. This has prompted an urgent need for the development and procurement of medical countermeasures (MCMs) against highly pathogenic viruses that can prevent morbidity and mortality from infections caused by these agents. To date, antiviral drug development has been largely focused on clinically prevalent chronic infections due to their commercial viability. This has left a huge gap in the drug development path for acute infections of biodefense importance. In this review, we discuss the antiviral research and development initiatives focusing specifically on poxviruses, filoviruses, and equine encephalitis viruses (EEV). We discuss the benefits and technical challenges in the current development strategies and the hurdles in the licensure path for MCMs against these highly pathogenic viruses under the FDA Animal Rule, and we provide recommendations for the path forward.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aruna Sampath
- Science Applications International Corporation, Frederick, Maryland, USA
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93
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Froude JW, Stiles B, Pelat T, Thullier P. Antibodies for biodefense. MAbs 2011; 3:517-27. [PMID: 22123065 PMCID: PMC3242838 DOI: 10.4161/mabs.3.6.17621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2011] [Accepted: 08/03/2011] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Potential bioweapons are biological agents (bacteria, viruses, and toxins) at risk of intentional dissemination. Biodefense, defined as development of therapeutics and vaccines against these agents, has seen an increase, particularly in the US following the 2001 anthrax attack. This review focuses on recombinant antibodies and polyclonal antibodies for biodefense that have been accepted for clinical use. These antibodies aim to protect against primary potential bioweapons, or category A agents as defined by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (Bacillus anthracis, Yersinia pestis, Francisella tularensis, botulinum neurotoxins, smallpox virus, and certain others causing viral hemorrhagic fevers) and certain category B agents. Potential for prophylactic use is presented, as well as frequent use of oligoclonal antibodies or synergistic effect with other molecules. Capacities and limitations of antibodies for use in biodefense are discussed, and are generally applicable to the field of infectious diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey W Froude
- US Army Medical Research and Material Command; Fort Detrick, MD USA
- Unité de biotechnologie des anticorps et des toxines; Département de Microbiologie; Institut de Recherche Biomédicale des Armées (IRBA-CRSSA); La Tronche Cedex, France
| | - Bradley Stiles
- US Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases; Fort Detrick, MD USA
| | - Thibaut Pelat
- Unité de biotechnologie des anticorps et des toxines; Département de Microbiologie; Institut de Recherche Biomédicale des Armées (IRBA-CRSSA); La Tronche Cedex, France
| | - Philippe Thullier
- Unité de biotechnologie des anticorps et des toxines; Département de Microbiologie; Institut de Recherche Biomédicale des Armées (IRBA-CRSSA); La Tronche Cedex, France
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94
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Heparan sulfate binding by natural eastern equine encephalitis viruses promotes neurovirulence. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2011; 108:16026-31. [PMID: 21896745 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1110617108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The Alphavirus genus of the family Togaviridae contains mosquito-vectored viruses that primarily cause either arthritogenic disease or acute encephalitis. North American eastern equine encephalitis virus (NA-EEEV) is uniquely neurovirulent among encephalitic alphaviruses, causing mortality in a majority of symptomatic cases and neurological sequelae in many survivors. Unlike many alphaviruses, NA-EEEV infection of mice yields limited signs of febrile illness typically associated with lymphoid tissue replication. Rather, signs of brain infection, including seizures, are prominent. Use of heparan sulfate (HS) as an attachment receptor increases the neurovirulence of cell culture-adapted strains of Sindbis virus, an arthritogenic alphavirus. However, this receptor is not known to be used by naturally circulating alphaviruses. We demonstrate that wild-type NA-EEEV strain FL91-4679 uses HS as an attachment receptor and that the amino acid sequence of its E2 attachment protein is identical to those of natural isolates sequenced by RT-PCR amplification of field samples. This finding unequivocally confirms the use of HS receptors by naturally circulating NA-EEEV strains. Inactivation of the major HS binding domain in NA-EEEV E2 demonstrated that the HS binding increased brain replication and neurologic disease but reduced lymphoid tissue replication, febrile illness signs, and cytokine/chemokine induction in mice. We propose that HS binding by natural NA-EEEV strains alters tropism in vivo to antagonize/evade immune responses, and the extreme neurovirulence of wild-type NA-EEEV may be a consequence. Therefore, reinvestigation of HS binding by this and other arboviruses is warranted.
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95
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Sharma A, Gupta P, Glass PJ, Parker MD, Maheshwari RK. Safety and protective efficacy of INA-inactivated Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus: implication in vaccine development. Vaccine 2010; 29:953-9. [PMID: 21115048 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2010.11.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2009] [Revised: 10/18/2010] [Accepted: 11/14/2010] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
We have previously shown that a hydrophobic alkylating compound, 1,5-iodonaphthyl-azide (INA) can efficiently inactivate the virulent strain of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV), V3000 in vitro. In this study, we have evaluated the safety of INA-inactivated V3000 and V3526 and the protective efficacy of INA-inactivated V3000. INA-inactivated V3000 and V3526 did not cause disease in suckling mice. RNA isolated from the INA-inactivated V3000 and V3526 was also not infectious. Immunization of adult mice with INA-inactivated V3000 induced an anti-VEEV antibody response and protected mice from virulent VEEV challenge. The protective efficacy of INA-inactivated V3000 increased with the use of adjuvants. Results suggest that inactivation of enveloped viruses by INA may occur by two independent mechanisms and the INA-inactivated VEEV elicit a protective antibody response in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anuj Sharma
- Centre for Combat Casualty and Life Sustainment Research, Department of Pathology, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA
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