A possible role for inflammation in mediating apoptosis of oligodendrocytes as induced by the Lyme disease spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi

Cytokine/Chemokine responses in activated CD4+ and CD8+ T cells isolated from peripheral blood, bone marrow, and axillary lymph nodes during acute simian immunodeficiency virus infection

Understanding the cytokine/chemokine networks in CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells during the acute phase of infection is crucial to design therapies for the control of early human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)/simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) replication. Here, we measured early changes in CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells in the peripheral blood (PB), bone marrow (BM), and axillary lymph node (ALN) tissue of rhesus macaques infected with SIVMAC251. At 21 days after infection, all tissues showed a statistically significant loss of CD4(+) T cells along with immune activation of CD8(+) T cells in PB and ALN tissue. Twenty-eight different cytokines/chemokines were quantified in either anti-CD3/28 antibody- or staphylococcal enterotoxin B-stimulated single-positive CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells. PB CD4(+) T cells produced predominantly interleukin-2 (IL-2), whereas CD4(+) and CD8(+) T-cell subsets in tissues produced β-chemokines both before and 21 days after SIV infection. Tissues generally exhibited massive upregulation of many cytokines/chemokines following infection, possibly in an attempt to mitigate the loss of CD4(+) T cells. There was no evidence of a T-helper 1 (TH1)-to-TH2 shift in CD4(+) T cells or a T-cytotoxic 1 (TC1)-to-TC2 cytokine shift in CD8(+) T cells in PB, BM, and ALN T-cell subsets during the acute phase of SIV infection. Despite the upregulation of several important effector cytokines/chemokines (IL-2, IL-12, IL-17, gamma interferon, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor) by CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells, upregulation of β-chemokines (CCL2 and CCL22), basic fibroblast growth factor (FGF-basic), hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), and migration inhibition factor (MIF) may provide a poor prognosis either by inducing increased virus replication or by other unknown mechanisms. Therefore, drugs targeting β-chemokines (CCL2 and CCL22), FGF-basic, HGF, or MIF might be important for developing effective vaccines and therapeutics against HIV.

IMPORTANCE

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)/simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) infection results in early depletion of CD4(+) T cells and dysregulation of protective immune responses. Therefore, understanding the cytokine/chemokine networks in CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells in different tissues during the acute phase of infection is crucial to the design of therapies for the control of early viral replication. Here, we measured early changes in CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells in peripheral blood (PB), bone marrow (BM), and axillary lymph node (ALN) tissue of rhesus macaques infected with SIVMAC251. There was no evidence of a T-helper 1 (TH1)-to-TH2 shift in CD4(+) T cells or a T-cytotoxic 1 (TC1)-to-TC2 cytokine shift in CD8(+) T cells in PB, BM, and ALN T-cell subsets during the acute phase of SIV infection. Despite the upregulation of several important effector cytokines/chemokines by CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells, upregulation of β-chemokines, fibroblast growth factor-basic, hepatocyte growth factor, and migration inhibition factor may provide a poor prognosis.

Oligodendrocyte-microglia cross-talk in the central nervous system

Communication between the immune system and the central nervous system (CNS) is exemplified by cross-talk between glia and neurons shown to be essential for maintaining homeostasis. While microglia are actively modulated by neurons in the healthy brain, little is known about the cross-talk between oligodendrocytes and microglia. Oligodendrocytes, the myelin-forming cells in the CNS, are essential for the propagation of action potentials along axons, and additionally serve to support neurons by producing neurotrophic factors. In demyelinating diseases such as multiple sclerosis, oligodendrocytes are thought to be the victims. Here, we review evidence that oligodendrocytes also have strong immune functions, express a wide variety of innate immune receptors, and produce and respond to chemokines and cytokines that modulate immune responses in the CNS. We also review evidence that during stress events in the brain, oligodendrocytes can trigger a cascade of protective and regenerative responses, in addition to responses that elicit progressive neurodegeneration. Knowledge of the cross-talk between microglia and oligodendrocytes may continue to uncover novel pathways of immune regulation in the brain that could be further exploited to control neuroinflammation and degeneration.

Non-viable Borrelia burgdorferi induce inflammatory mediators and apoptosis in human oligodendrocytes

In previous studies, exposure to live Borrelia burgdorferi was shown to induce inflammation and apoptosis of human oligodendrocytes. In this study we assessed the ability of non-viable bacteria (heat killed or sonicated) to induce inflammatory mediators and cell death. Both heat-killed and sonicated bacteria induced release of CCL2, IL-6, and CXCL8 from oligodendrocytes in a dose dependent manner. In addition, non-viable B. burgdorferi also induced cell death as evaluated by terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) and another cell viability assay. These results suggest that spirochetal residues left after bacterial demise, due to treatment or otherwise, may continue to be pathogenic to the central nervous system.

Borrelia burgdorferi BbHtrA degrades host ECM proteins and stimulates release of inflammatory cytokines in vitro

The Lyme disease spirochaete, Borrelia burgdorferi, causes damage to diverse host tissues and induces inflammation but the mechanisms of injury are poorly understood. We recently reported that a surface-exposed B. burgdorferi protease, which is expressed during human disease and is conserved within the major Lyme disease spirochaete species, degrades the extracellular matrix proteoglycan, aggrecan. Here we demonstrate that BbHtrA also degrades fibronectin and numerous proteoglycans found in skin, joints and neural tissues. BbHtrA degradation of fibronectin released known pro-inflammatory fibronectin fragments FnIII(13-14) and Fnf-29, which may amplify the inflammatory processes triggered by the presence of the bacteria. When this hypothesis was tested directly by exposing chondrocytes to BbHtrA in vitro, inflammatory cytokines (sICAM-1 and IL-6) and chemokines (CXCL1, CCL1, CCL2 and CCL5) that are hallmarks of Lyme disease were induced. These results provide the first evidence that, by utilizing BbHtrA, B. burgdorferi may actively participate in its dissemination and in the tissue damage and inflammation observed in Lyme disease.

An Enhanced ELISPOT Assay for Sensitive Detection of Antigen-Specific T Cell Responses to Borrelia burgdorferi

Lyme Borreliosis is an infectious disease caused by the spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi that is transmitted through the bite of infected ticks. Both B cell-mediated humoral immunity and T cell immunity develop during natural Borrelia infection. However, compared with humoral immunity, the T cell response to Borrelia infection has not been well elucidated. In this study, a novel T cell-based assay was developed and validated for the sensitive detection of antigen-specific T cell response to B. burgdorferi. Using interferon-γ as a biomarker, we developed a new enzyme-linked immunospot method (iSpot Lyme^TM) to detect Borrelia antigen-specific effector/memory T cells that were activated in vivo by exposing them to recombinant Borrelia antigens ex vivo. To test this new method as a potential laboratory diagnostic tool, we performed a clinical study with a cohort of Borrelia positive patients and healthy controls. We demonstrated that the iSpot Lyme assay has a significantly higher specificity and sensitivity compared with the Western Blot assay that is currently used as a diagnostic measure. A comprehensive evaluation of the T cell response to Borrelia infection should, therefore, provide new insights into the pathogenesis, diagnosis, treatment and monitoring of Lyme disease.

Dynamics of cytokine/chemokine responses in intestinal CD4+ and CD8+ T Cells during Acute Simian Immunodeficiency Virus Infection

Loss of intestinal CD4(+) T cells was associated with decreased production of several T-helper 1 (TH1) and TH2 cytokines and increased production of interleukin 17 (IL-17), gamma interferon (IFN-γ), CCL4, and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) by CD8(+) T cells 21 days after simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) infection in rhesus macaques. Shifting of mucosal TH1 to TH2 or T-cytotoxic 1 (TC1) to TC2 cytokine profiles was not evident. Additionally, both CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells showed upregulation of macrophage migration inhibition factor (MIF) and basic fibroblast growth factor (FGF-basic) cytokines that have been linked to HIV disease progression.

Cytokines and chemokines at the crossroads of neuroinflammation, neurodegeneration, and neuropathic pain

Cytokines and chemokines are proteins that coordinate the immune response throughout the body. The dysregulation of cytokines and chemokines is a central feature in the development of neuroinflammation, neurodegeneration, and demyelination both in the central and peripheral nervous systems and in conditions of neuropathic pain. Pathological states within the nervous system can lead to activation of microglia. The latter may mediate neuronal and glial cell injury and death through production of proinflammatory factors such as cytokines and chemokines. These then help to mobilize the adaptive immune response. Although inflammation may induce beneficial effects such as pathogen clearance and phagocytosis of apoptotic cells, uncontrolled inflammation can result in detrimental outcomes via the production of neurotoxic factors that exacerbate neurodegenerative pathology. In states of prolonged inflammation, continual activation and recruitment of effector cells can establish a feedback loop that perpetuates inflammation and ultimately results in neuronal injury. A critical balance between repair and proinflammatory factors determines the outcome of a neurodegenerative process. This review will focus on how cytokines and chemokines affect neuroinflammation and disease pathogenesis in bacterial meningitis and brain abscesses, Lyme neuroborreliosis, human immunodeficiency virus encephalitis, and neuropathic pain.

The Lyme disease spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi induces inflammation and apoptosis in cells from dorsal root ganglia

Background

Lyme neuroborreliosis (LNB), caused by the spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi, affects both the peripheral and the central nervous systems. Radiculitis or nerve root inflammation, which can cause pain, sensory loss, and weakness, is the most common manifestation of peripheral LNB in humans. We previously reported that rhesus monkeys infected with B. burgdorferi develop radiculitis as well as inflammation in the dorsal root ganglia (DRG), with elevated levels of neuronal and satellite glial cell apoptosis in the DRG. We hypothesized that B. burgdorferi induces inflammatory mediators in glial and neuronal cells and that this inflammatory milieu precipitates glial and neuronal apoptosis.

Methods

To model peripheral neuropathy in LNB we incubated normal rhesus DRG tissue explants with live B. burgdorferi ex vivo and identified immune mediators, producer cells, and verified the presence of B. burgdorferi in tissue sections by immunofluorescence staining and confocal microscopy. We also set up primary cultures of DRG cells from normal adult rhesus macaques and incubated the cultures with live B. burgdorferi. Culture supernatants were subjected to multiplex ELISA to detect immune mediators, while the cells were evaluated for apoptosis by the in situ TUNEL assay. A role for inflammation in mediating apoptosis was assessed by evaluating the above phenomena in the presence and absence of various concentrations of the anti-inflammatory drug dexamethasone. As Schwann cells ensheath the dorsal roots of the DRG, we evaluated the potential of live B. burgdorferi to induce inflammatory mediators in human Schwann cell (HSC) cultures.

Results

Rhesus DRG tissue explants exposed to live B. burgdorferi showed localization of CCL2 and IL-6 in sensory neurons, satellite glial cells and Schwann cells while IL-8 was seen in satellite glial cells and Schwann cells. Live B. burgdorferi induced elevated levels of IL-6, IL-8 and CCL2 in HSC and DRG cultures and apoptosis of sensory neurons. Dexamethasone reduced the levels of immune mediators and neuronal apoptosis in a dose dependent manner.

Conclusion

In this model, B. burgdorferi induced an inflammatory response and neuronal apoptosis of DRG. These pathophysiological processes could contribute to peripheral neuropathy in LNB.

Review: apoptotic mechanisms in bacterial infections of the central nervous system

In this article we review the apoptotic mechanisms most frequently encountered in bacterial infections of the central nervous system (CNS). We focus specifically on apoptosis of neural cells (neurons and glia), and provide first an overview of the phenomenon of apoptosis itself and its extrinsic and intrinsic pathways. We then describe apoptosis in the context of infectious diseases and inflammation caused by bacteria, and review its role in the pathogenesis of the most relevant bacterial infections of the CNS.