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The Transcriptional Regulatory Properties of Amyloid Beta 1–42 may Include Regulation of Genes Related to Neurodegeneration. Neuromolecular Med 2018; 20:363-375. [DOI: 10.1007/s12017-018-8498-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2018] [Accepted: 06/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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Casati M, Ferri E, Gussago C, Mazzola P, Abbate C, Bellelli G, Mari D, Cesari M, Arosio B. Increased expression of TREM2 in peripheral cells from mild cognitive impairment patients who progress into Alzheimer's disease. Eur J Neurol 2018; 25:805-810. [PMID: 29377401 DOI: 10.1111/ene.13583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2017] [Accepted: 01/19/2018] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Neuroinflammation plays a role in the aetiopathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 2 (TREM2), a cell surface receptor of the immunoglobulin superfamily, seems to have protective anti-inflammatory activity in AD. METHODS Triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 2 expression was analysed in peripheral blood mononuclear cells from healthy subjects (CT) and from patients with either AD or mild cognitive impairment (MCI). MCI patients were re-evaluated at a 2-year follow-up to investigate their progression to AD (MCI-AD) or lack thereof (MCI-MCI). RESULTS Triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 2 gene expression was higher in AD than CT patients, but was highest in MCI. At recruitment TREM2 levels were higher in MCI-AD than in MCI-MCI, and in MCI-AD were higher initially than at follow-up. TREM2 displayed a moderate degree of sensitivity and specificity for identifying MCI-AD in all MCI patients. Our data showed higher TREM2 levels in allele ε4 of apolipoprotein E (ApoE ε4) carriers than non-carriers in MCI and particularly in MCI-AD. CONCLUSIONS These data seem to confirm the protective role of TREM2 in the pre-clinical stage of AD. Upregulation of TREM2 in MCI-AD could be a mechanism to counteract the activation of neuroinflammatory processes. It is possible that TREM2 and ApoE ε4 interact synergistically in the pre-clinical stage of AD. Therefore, TREM2 may be useful as an early peripheral biomarker for the development of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Casati
- Geriatric Unit, Department of Medical Sciences and Community Health, University of Milan, Milan, Italy.,Nutritional Sciences, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - E Ferri
- Geriatric Unit, Fondazione Ca' Granda, IRCCS Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milan, Italy
| | - C Gussago
- Geriatric Unit, Department of Medical Sciences and Community Health, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - P Mazzola
- School of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milano-Bicocca, Monza, Italy.,Acute Geriatrics Unit, San Gerardo Hospital ASST Monza, Monza, Italy.,NeuroMI Milan Center for Neuroscience, Clinical Neurosciences research area, Milano, Italy
| | - C Abbate
- Geriatric Unit, Fondazione Ca' Granda, IRCCS Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milan, Italy
| | - G Bellelli
- School of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milano-Bicocca, Monza, Italy.,Acute Geriatrics Unit, San Gerardo Hospital ASST Monza, Monza, Italy.,NeuroMI Milan Center for Neuroscience, Clinical Neurosciences research area, Milano, Italy
| | - D Mari
- Geriatric Unit, Department of Medical Sciences and Community Health, University of Milan, Milan, Italy.,Geriatric Unit, Fondazione Ca' Granda, IRCCS Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milan, Italy
| | - M Cesari
- Geriatric Unit, Department of Medical Sciences and Community Health, University of Milan, Milan, Italy.,Geriatric Unit, Fondazione Ca' Granda, IRCCS Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milan, Italy
| | - B Arosio
- Geriatric Unit, Department of Medical Sciences and Community Health, University of Milan, Milan, Italy.,Geriatric Unit, Fondazione Ca' Granda, IRCCS Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milan, Italy
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Bekris LM, Khrestian M, Dyne E, Shao Y, Pillai JA, Rao SM, Bemiller SM, Lamb B, Fernandez HH, Leverenz JB. Soluble TREM2 and biomarkers of central and peripheral inflammation in neurodegenerative disease. J Neuroimmunol 2018; 319:19-27. [PMID: 29685286 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2018.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2017] [Revised: 03/08/2018] [Accepted: 03/08/2018] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) has been genetically and pathologically associated with neuroinflammation. Triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 2 (TREM2) is a microglial receptor involved in innate immunity. TREM2 rare protein coding genetic variants have been linked to AD. A soluble TREM2 (sTREM2) cleavage product is elevated in AD. It is unclear whether there is a relationship between elevated sTREM2 and markers of inflammation. The hypothesis of this investigation was that central and peripheral inflammation play a role in sTREM2 levels in AD. A consistent association of peripheral or central markers of inflammation and CSF sTREM2 levels was not found, suggesting a limited impact of general inflammation on sTREM2 levels. An association between peripheral sTREM2 levels and CSF sTREM2, as well as an association between CSF sTREM2 and a marker of blood brain barrier integrity, was observed in AD, suggesting a potential role of peripheral TREM2 in central TREM2 biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- L M Bekris
- Cleveland Clinic, Genomic Medicine Institute, Cleveland, OH, United States.
| | - M Khrestian
- Cleveland Clinic, Genomic Medicine Institute, Cleveland, OH, United States
| | - E Dyne
- Kent State University, Departoment of Biomedicine, Kent, OH, United States
| | - Y Shao
- Cleveland Clinic, Genomic Medicine Institute, Cleveland, OH, United States
| | - J A Pillai
- Cleveland Clinic, Lou Ruvo Center for Brain Health, Cleveland, OH, United States
| | - S M Rao
- Cleveland Clinic, Lou Ruvo Center for Brain Health, Cleveland, OH, United States
| | - S M Bemiller
- Indiana University, Department of Neuroscience, Indianapolis, IN, United States
| | - B Lamb
- Indiana University, Department of Neuroscience, Indianapolis, IN, United States
| | - H H Fernandez
- Cleveland Clinic, Center for Neurological Restoration, Cleveland, OH, United States
| | - J B Leverenz
- Cleveland Clinic, Lou Ruvo Center for Brain Health, Cleveland, OH, United States
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54
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Kang SS, Kurti A, Baker KE, Liu CC, Colonna M, Ulrich JD, Holtzman DM, Bu G, Fryer JD. Behavioral and transcriptomic analysis of Trem2-null mice: not all knockout mice are created equal. Hum Mol Genet 2018; 27:211-223. [PMID: 29040522 PMCID: PMC5886290 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddx366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2017] [Revised: 08/31/2017] [Accepted: 09/21/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
It is clear that innate immune system status is altered in numerous neurodegenerative diseases. Human genetic studies have demonstrated that triggering receptor expressed in myeloid cells 2 (TREM2) coding variants have a strong association with Alzheimer's disease (AD) and other neurodegenerative diseases. To more thoroughly understand the impact of TREM2 in vivo, we studied the behavioral and cognitive functions of wild-type (WT) and Trem2-/- (KO) mice during basal conditions and brain function in the context of innate immune stimulation with peripherally administered lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Early markers of neuroinflammation preceded Aif1 and Trem2 upregulation that occurred at later stages (24-48 h post-LPS). We performed a transcriptomic study of these cohorts and found numerous transcripts and pathways that were altered in Trem2-/- mice both at baseline and 48 h after LPS challenge. Importantly, our transcriptome analysis revealed that our Trem2-/- mouse line (Velocigene allele) results in exaggerated Treml1 upregulation. In contrast, aberrantly high Treml1 expression was absent in the Trem2 knockout line generated by the Colonna lab and the Jackson Labs CRISPR/Cas9 Trem2 knockout line. Notably, removal of the floxed neomycin selection cassette ameliorated aberrant Treml1 expression, validating the artifactual nature of Treml1 expression in the original Trem2-/- Velocigene line. Clearly further studies are needed to decipher whether the Treml1 transcriptional artifact is functionally meaningful, but our data indicate that caution is warranted when interpreting functional studies with this particular line. Additionally, our results indicate that other Velocigene alleles or targeting strategies with strong heterologous promoters need to carefully consider downstream genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia S Kang
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
| | - Aishe Kurti
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
| | - Kelsey E Baker
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
| | - Chia-Chen Liu
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
| | - Marco Colonna
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Jason D Ulrich
- Department of Neurology, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - David M Holtzman
- Department of Neurology, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Guojun Bu
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
- Neurobiology of Disease Graduate Program, Mayo Clinic Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
| | - John D Fryer
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
- Neurobiology of Disease Graduate Program, Mayo Clinic Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
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Hu X, Song C, Fang M, Li C. Simvastatin inhibits the apoptosis of hippocampal cells in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. Exp Ther Med 2017; 15:1795-1802. [PMID: 29434767 PMCID: PMC5776644 DOI: 10.3892/etm.2017.5620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2016] [Accepted: 03/24/2017] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease is associated with cognitive impairments that affect memory and executive functions. Simvastatin is a cholesterol-lowering statin drug that is used to control levels of cholesterol in the blood, particularly in cases of hypercholesterolemia, and may be used in the treatment of aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. Previous results have indicated that the apoptosis of hippocampal cells may serve a critical role in the progression of Alzheimer's disease. In the present study, it was determined whether Simvastatin inhibited the apoptosis of hippocampal cells in vitro and in vivo. The therapeutic effects of Simvastatin were evaluated in 24-month-old triple-transgenic Alzheimer's disease (3×Tg-AD) mice, and the efficacy of Simvastatin in attenuating memory and cognitive impairment was investigated. Levels of apoptosis-related gene expression in the hippocampus and hippocampal cells of experimental mice were also detected. In addition, neuron excitability was assessed in the functionally relevant brain regions in the hippocampus. The data indicated that Simvastatin significantly suppressed the apoptosis of hippocampal cells in 3×Tg-AD model mice compared with controls (P<0.01). Furthermore, treatment with Simvastatin improved the dementia status of 3×Tg-AD mice, as determined by a learning task in which mice exhibited significantly reduced attention impairment, impulsivity and compulsivity (P<0.01). In addition, results demonstrated that Simvastatin significantly inhibited hippocampal damage and significantly improved neuronal loss in hippocampal structures classically associated with attentional performance when compared with untreated mice (P<0.01). Thus, Simvastatin prevented cognitive impairment by decreasing hippocampal cell apoptosis and improving learning-memory ability. Simvastatin treatment also increased the expression of anti-apoptotic genes and decreased the expression pro-apoptotic genes (P<0.01), which may have been associated with improved motor attention and cognitive competence in 3×Tg-AD mice. Collectively, these preclinical data indicated that Simvastatin was efficient in attenuating memory lapse and hippocampal cell apoptosis in a 3×Tg-AD mouse model. Thus, Simvastatin may be useful in improving the clinical outcome of patients with Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoqin Hu
- Department of Neurology, Remnin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei 430060, P.R. China
| | - Chengwei Song
- Department of Neurology, The First Hospital of Yichang, The Gorges University College of Medicine, Yichang, Hubei 443000, P.R. China
| | - Ming Fang
- Department of Neurology, The First Hospital of Yichang, The Gorges University College of Medicine, Yichang, Hubei 443000, P.R. China
| | - Chengyan Li
- Department of Neurology, Remnin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei 430060, P.R. China
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Jendresen C, Daws MR, Nilsson LNG. An improved CPRG colorimetric ligand-receptor signal transduction assay based on beta-galactosidase activity in mammalian BWZ-reporter cells. J Pharmacol Toxicol Methods 2017; 90:67-75. [PMID: 29203451 DOI: 10.1016/j.vascn.2017.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2017] [Revised: 11/23/2017] [Accepted: 11/29/2017] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Reporter cells expressing a chimeric receptor that activates a reporter can be used for screening ligand-mediated signal transduction. In this study, we used reporter cells harboring an NFAT/lacZ construct that express β-galactosidase when the chimeric receptor is stimulated. A colorimetric β-galactosidase substrate, chlorophenol-red β-d-galactopyranoside (CPRG), was used to detect enzymatic activity. Sub-optimal conditions have unfortunately extensively been reported with such reporter-based β-galactosidase assays. Here, we aimed to improve the CPRG-based colorimetric assay such that receptor ligands could be effectively screened with reporter cells. METHODS After stimulation of reporter cells, we determined β-galactosidase activity by absorbance measurement of β-galactosidase-dependent CPRG hydrolysis. We systematically examined each component in a standard lysis buffer most commonly reported for this type of reporter cells. Furthermore, we evaluated literature in the field. RESULTS An increased CPRG substrate concentration combined with a different detergent, Saponin, and an optimal wavelength recording markedly increased the sensitivity for the detection of β-galactosidase activity (≈4-fold increase). Moreover, the improved protocol resulted in increased linear time-dependent recording of enzymatic activity once cells had been lysed, and a more stable and reproducible assay to detect a ligand-stimulus with the reporter cells. The optimal time length of exposure to a stimulus was ligand-dependent. DISCUSSION In conclusion, we provide an improved protocol with an optimized lysis buffer that gives up to a six-fold higher and more robust specific signal when NFAT/lacZ-based receptor-expressing reporter cells are exposed to a stimulus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte Jendresen
- Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo and Oslo University Hospital, Postboks 1057 Blindern, 0316 Blindern, Oslo, Norway.
| | - Michael R Daws
- Division of Anatomy, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Oslo, Postboks 1105 Blindern, 0317 Oslo, Norway.
| | - Lars N G Nilsson
- Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo and Oslo University Hospital, Postboks 1057 Blindern, 0316 Blindern, Oslo, Norway.
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Jay TR, von Saucken VE, Landreth GE. TREM2 in Neurodegenerative Diseases. Mol Neurodegener 2017; 12:56. [PMID: 28768545 PMCID: PMC5541421 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-017-0197-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 252] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2017] [Accepted: 07/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
TREM2 variants have been identified as risk factors for Alzheimer's disease (AD) and other neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs). Because TREM2 encodes a receptor exclusively expressed on immune cells, identification of these variants conclusively demonstrates that the immune response can play an active role in the pathogenesis of NDDs. These TREM2 variants also confer the highest risk for developing Alzheimer's disease of any risk factor identified in nearly two decades, suggesting that understanding more about TREM2 function could provide key insights into NDD pathology and provide avenues for novel immune-related NDD biomarkers and therapeutics. The expression, signaling and function of TREM2 in NDDs have been extensively investigated in an effort to understand the role of immune function in disease pathogenesis and progression. We provide a comprehensive review of our current understanding of TREM2 biology, including new insights into the regulation of TREM2 expression, and TREM2 signaling and function across NDDs. While many open questions remain, the current body of literature provides clarity on several issues. While it is still often cited that TREM2 expression is decreased by pro-inflammatory stimuli, it is now clear that this is true in vitro, but inflammatory stimuli in vivo almost universally increase TREM2 expression. Likewise, while TREM2 function is classically described as promoting an anti-inflammatory phenotype, more than half of published studies demonstrate a pro-inflammatory role for TREM2, suggesting that its role in inflammation is much more complex. Finally, these components of TREM2 biology are applied to a discussion of how TREM2 impacts NDD pathologies and the latest assessment of how these findings might be applied to immune-directed clinical biomarkers and therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taylor R. Jay
- Department of Neurosciences, Case Western Reserve University, School of Medicine, 10900 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44106 USA
| | - Victoria E. von Saucken
- Department of Neurosciences, Case Western Reserve University, School of Medicine, 10900 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44106 USA
- Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, 320 W 15th Street, Indianapolis, IN 46202 USA
| | - Gary E. Landreth
- Department of Neurosciences, Case Western Reserve University, School of Medicine, 10900 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44106 USA
- Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, 320 W 15th Street, Indianapolis, IN 46202 USA
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