Distinct roles of class IA PI3K isoforms in primary and immortalised macrophages

Class I phosphoinositide 3-kinases in normal and pathologic hematopoietic cells

Class I phosphoinositide 3-kinases which produce the D3-phosphoinositide second messenger phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-trisphosphate in response to membrane receptors activation play a critical role in cell proliferation, survival, metabolism, and motility. These lipid kinases and the phosphatases regulating the level of D3-phosphoinositides have been an intense area of research these last two decades. The class I phosphoinositide 3-kinases signaling is found aberrantly activated in numerous human cancers, including in malignant hemopathies, and are important therapeutic targets for cancer therapy. Haematopoiesis is an ongoing process which generates the distinct blood cell types from a common hematopoietic stem cell through the action of a variety of cytokines. In the human adult hematopoiesis occurs primarily in the bone marrow, and defects in hematopoiesis result in diseases, such as anemia, thrombocytopenia, myeloproliferative syndromes, or leukemia. Here we give a brief overview of the role of class I phosphoinositide 3-kinases in hematopoietic stem cells, in hematopoietic lineage development and in leukemia, particularly in acute myeloid leukemia and summarize the potential therapeutic implications.

PI3Kδ inhibitors in cancer: rationale and serendipity merge in the clinic

Several phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) inhibitors are in the clinic and many more are in preclinical development. CAL-101, a selective inhibitor of the PI3Kδ isoform, has shown remarkable success in certain hematologic malignancies. Although PI3Kδ signaling plays a central role in lymphocyte biology, the degree of single-agent therapeutic activity of CAL-101 during early-phase development has been somewhat unexpected. CAL-101 works in part by blocking signals from the microenvironment that normally sustain leukemia and lymphoma cells in a protective niche. As PI3Ks enter the arena of molecular-targeted therapies, CAL-101 provides proof of principle that isoform-selective compounds can be effective in selected cancer types and patient populations.

SIGNIFICANCE

A key question is whether compounds targeting a single PI3K catalytic isoform can provide meaningful single agent efficacy in cancer cells that express multiple isoforms. Clinical studies of the drug CAL-101 have provided a significant advance by showing that selective targeting of PI3Kδ achieves efficacy in chronic lymphocytic leukemia, in part through targeting the tumor microenvironment.

Functional CSF-1 receptors are located at the nuclear envelope and activated via the p110δ isoform of PI 3-kinase

Colony stimulating factor-1 (CSF-1) and its receptor (CSF-1R) are key regulators of macrophage biology, and their elevated expression in cancer cells has been linked to poor prognosis. CSF-1Rs are thought to function at the plasma membrane. We show here that functional CSF-1Rs are present at the nuclear envelope of various cell types, including primary macrophages, human cancer cell lines, and primary human carcinomas. In response to CSF-1, added to intact cells or isolated nuclei, nucleus-associated CSF-1R became phosphorylated and triggered the phosphorylation of Akt and p27 inside the nucleus. Extracellularly added CSF-1 was also found to colocalize with nucleus-associated CSF-1Rs. All these activities were found to depend selectively on the activity of the p110δ isoform of phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K). This finding was related to the p110δ-dependent translocation of exogenous CSF-1 to the nucleus-associated CSF-1Rs, correlating with a prominent role of p110δ in activation of the Rab5 GTPase, a key regulator of the endocytic trafficking. siRNA-silencing of Rab5a phenocopied p110δ inactivation and nuclear CSF-1 signaling. Our work demonstrates for the first time the presence of functional nucleus-associated CSF-1Rs, which are activated by extracellular CSF-1 by a mechanism that involves p110δ and Rab5 activity. These findings may have important implications in cancer development.

A drug targeting only p110α can block phosphoinositide 3-kinase signalling and tumour growth in certain cell types

Genetic alterations in PI3K (phosphoinositide 3-kinase) signalling are common in cancer and include deletions in PTEN (phosphatase and tensin homologue deleted on chromosome 10), amplifications of PIK3CA and mutations in two distinct regions of the PIK3CA gene. This suggests drugs targeting PI3K, and p110α in particular, might be useful in treating cancers. Broad-spectrum inhibition of PI3K is effective in preventing growth factor signalling and tumour growth, but suitable inhibitors of p110α have not been available to study the effects of inhibiting this isoform alone. In the present study we characterize a novel small molecule, A66, showing the S-enantiomer to be a highly specific and selective p110α inhibitor. Using molecular modelling and biochemical studies, we explain the basis of this selectivity. Using a panel of isoform-selective inhibitors, we show that insulin signalling to Akt/PKB (protein kinase B) is attenuated by the additive effects of inhibiting p110α/p110β/p110δ in all cell lines tested. However, inhibition of p110α alone was sufficient to block insulin signalling to Akt/PKB in certain cell lines. The responsive cell lines all harboured H1047R mutations in PIK3CA and have high levels of p110α and class-Ia PI3K activity. This may explain the increased sensitivity of these cells to p110α inhibitors. We assessed the activation of Akt/PKB and tumour growth in xenograft models and found that tumours derived from two of the responsive cell lines were also responsive to A66 in vivo. These results show that inhibition of p110α alone has the potential to block growth factor signalling and reduce growth in a subset of tumours.

Regulation of tyrosine phosphorylation in macrophage phagocytosis and chemotaxis

Macrophages display a large variety of surface receptors that are critical for their normal cellular functions in host defense, including finding sites of infection (chemotaxis) and removing foreign particles (phagocytosis). However, inappropriate regulation of these processes can lead to human diseases. Many of these receptors utilize tyrosine phosphorylation cascades to initiate and terminate signals leading to cell migration and clearance of infection. Actin remodeling dominates these processes and many regulators have been identified. This review focuses on how tyrosine kinases and phosphatases regulate actin dynamics leading to macrophage chemotaxis and phagocytosis.

Phosphorylation of CSF-1R Y721 mediates its association with PI3K to regulate macrophage motility and enhancement of tumor cell invasion

Colony stimulating factor-1 (CSF-1) regulates macrophage morphology and motility, as well as mononuclear phagocytic cell proliferation and differentiation. The CSF-1 receptor (CSF-1R) transduces these pleiotropic signals through autophosphorylation of eight intracellular tyrosine residues. We have used a novel bone-marrow-derived macrophage cell line system to examine specific signaling pathways activated by tyrosine-phosphorylated CSF-1R in macrophages. Screening of macrophages expressing a single species of CSF-1R with individual tyrosine-to-phenylalanine residue mutations revealed striking morphological alterations upon mutation of Y721. M⁻/⁻.Y721F cells were apolar and ruffled poorly in response to CSF-1. Y721-P-mediated CSF-1R signaling regulated adhesion and actin polymerization to control macrophage spreading and motility. Moreover, the reduced motility of M⁻/⁻.Y721F macrophages was associated with their reduced capacity to enhance carcinoma cell invasion. Y721 phosphorylation mediated the direct association of the p85 subunit of phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) with the CSF-1R, but not that of phospholipase C (PLC) γ2, and induced polarized PtdIns(3,4,5)P₃ production at the putative leading edge, implicating PI3K as a major regulator of CSF-1-induced macrophage motility. The Y721-P-motif-based motility signaling was at least partially independent of both Akt and increased Rac and Cdc42 activation but mediated the rapid and transient association of an unidentified ~170 kDa phosphorylated protein with either Rac-GTP or Cdc42-GTP. These studies identify CSF-1R-Y721-P-PI3K signaling as a major pathway in CSF-1-regulated macrophage motility and provide a starting point for the discovery of the immediate downstream signaling events.

C5a-mediated neutrophil dysfunction is RhoA-dependent and predicts infection in critically ill patients

Critically ill patients are at heightened risk for nosocomial infections. The anaphylatoxin C5a impairs phagocytosis by neutrophils. However, the mechanisms by which this occurs and the relevance for acquisition of nosocomial infection remain undetermined. We aimed to characterize mechanisms by which C5a inhibits phagocytosis in vitro and in critically ill patients, and to define the relationship between C5a-mediated dysfunction and acquisition of nosocomial infection. In healthy human neutrophils, C5a significantly inhibited RhoA activation, preventing actin polymerization and phagocytosis. RhoA inhibition was mediated by PI3Kδ. The effects on RhoA, actin, and phagocytosis were fully reversed by GM-CSF. Parallel observations were made in neutrophils from critically ill patients, that is, impaired phagocytosis was associated with inhibition of RhoA and actin polymerization, and reversed by GM-CSF. Among a cohort of 60 critically ill patients, C5a-mediated neutrophil dysfunction (as determined by reduced CD88 expression) was a strong predictor for subsequent acquisition of nosocomial infection (relative risk, 5.8; 95% confidence interval, 1.5-22; P = .0007), and remained independent of time effects as assessed by survival analysis (hazard ratio, 5.0; 95% confidence interval, 1.3-8.3; P = .01). In conclusion, this study provides new insight into the mechanisms underlying immunocompromise in critical illness and suggests novel avenues for therapy and prevention of nosocomial infection.

PI3K as a target for therapy in haematological malignancies

Although classical mutations in genes such as PIK3CA and PTEN occur at a relatively low frequency in haematological malignancies, activation of PI3K signalling is often detected in these tumours. In some conditions, for example acute myeloid leukaemia (AML), this is due to activating mutations of upstream regulators such as the FLT3 tyrosine kinase or RAS. Primary tumour cells taken from patients with AML, acute lymphoblastic leukaemia, chronic lymphocytic leukaemia and multiple myeloma show varying levels of sensitivity to PI3K and mTOR inhibitors. The challenge now is to conduct high quality trials with novel agents that target these pathways to establish the level of clinical response and to identify those subsets of patients that are more likely to respond.

Small G protein signaling in neuronal plasticity and memory formation: the specific role of ras family proteins

Small G proteins are an extensive family of proteins that bind and hydrolyze GTP. They are ubiquitous inside cells, regulating a wide range of cellular processes. Recently, many studies have examined the role of small G proteins, particularly the Ras family of G proteins, in memory formation. Once thought to be primarily involved in the transduction of a variety of extracellular signals during development, it is now clear that Ras family proteins also play critical roles in molecular processing underlying neuronal and behavioral plasticity. We here review a number of recent studies that explore how the signaling of Ras family proteins contributes to memory formation. Understanding these signaling processes is of fundamental importance both from a basic scientific perspective, with the goal of providing mechanistic insights into a critical aspect of cognitive behavior, and from a clinical perspective, with the goal of providing effective therapies for a range of disorders involving cognitive impairments.

Altered macrophage function contributes to colitis in mice defective in the phosphoinositide-3 kinase subunit p110δ

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Innate immune responses are crucial for host defense against pathogens but need to be tightly regulated to prevent chronic inflammation. Initial characterization of mice with a targeted inactivating mutation in the p110δ subunit of phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K p110δ(D910A/D910A)) revealed defects in B- and T-cell signaling and chronic colitis. Here, we further characterize features of inflammatory bowel diseases in these mice and investigate underlying innate immune defects.

METHODS

Colons and macrophages from PI3K p110δ(D910A/D910A) mice were evaluated for colonic inflammation and innate immune dysfunction. Colonic p110δ messenger RNA expression was examined in interleukin (IL)-10(-/-) and wild-type germ-free mice during transition to a conventional microbiota. To assess polygenic impact on development of colitis, p110δ(D910A/D910A) mice were backcrossed to IL-10(-/-) mice.

RESULTS

A mild spontaneous colitis was shown in PI3K p110δ(D910A/D910A) mice at 8 weeks, with inflammation increasing with age. An inflammatory mucosal and systemic cytokine profile was characterized by expression of IL-12/23. In PI3K p110δ(D910A/D910A) macrophages, augmented toll-like receptor signaling and defective bactericidal activity were observed. Consistent with an important homeostatic role for PI3K p110δ, wild-type mice raised in a germ-free environment markedly up-regulated colonic PI3K p110δ expression with the introduction of the enteric microbiota; however, colitis-prone IL-10(-/-) mice did not. Moreover, PI3K p110δ(D910A/D910A) mice crossed to IL-10(-/-) mice developed severe colitis at an early age.

CONCLUSIONS

This study describes a novel model of experimental colitis that highlights the importance of PI3K p110δ in maintaining mucosal homeostasis and could provide insight into the pathogenesis of human inflammatory bowel disease.

Integrating chemotaxis and contact-inhibition during collective cell migration: Small GTPases at work

For directional cell migration to occur cells must interpret guiding cues present in their environment. Chemotaxis based on negative or positive signals has been long thought as the main driving force of guided cell migration. However during collective cell migration cells do receive information from external signals but also upon interactions with their direct neighbours. These multiple inputs must be translated into intracellular reorganisation in order to promote efficient directional migration. Small GTPases, being involved in establishing cell polarity and regulating protrusive activity, are likely to play a central role in signal integration. Indeed, recent findings from our laboratory indicate that Contact-Inhibition of Locomotion controlled by N-Cadherin and chemotaxis dependent on Sdf1/Cxcr4 signaling converge towards regulation of the localized activity of RhoA and Rac1. All together they establish cell polarity and select well-oriented cell protrusions to ensure directional cell migration.

Activity of any class IA PI3K isoform can sustain cell proliferation and survival

Small molecule inhibitors of PI3K for oncology mainly target the class I PI3Ks, comprising the p110alpha, beta, gamma, and delta isoforms, of which only p110alpha is mutated in cancer. To assess the roles of class I PI3K isoforms in cell proliferation and survival, we generated immortalized mouse leukocyte and fibroblast models in which class I PI3Ks were inactivated by genetic and pharmacological approaches. In IL3-dependent hemopoietic progenitor cells (which express all four class I PI3K isoforms), genetic inactivation of either p110alpha or p110delta did not affect cell proliferation or survival or sensitize to p110beta or p110gamma inactivation. Upon compound inactivation of p110alpha and p110delta, which removed >90% of p85-associated PI3K activity, remarkably, cells continued to proliferate effectively, with p110beta assuming an essential role in signaling and cell survival. Furthermore, under these conditions of diminished class I PI3K activity, input from the ERK pathway became important for cell survival. Similar observations were made in mouse embryonic fibroblasts (which mainly express p110alpha and p110beta) in which p110alpha or p110beta could sustain cell proliferation as a single isoform. Taken together, these data demonstrate that a small fraction of total class I PI3K activity is sufficient to sustain cell survival and proliferation. Persistent inhibition of selected PI3K isoforms can allow the remaining isoform(s) to couple to upstream signaling pathways in which they are not normally engaged. Such functional redundancy of class IA PI3K isoforms upon sustained PI3K inhibition has implications for the development and use of PI3K inhibitors in cancer.

Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-δ inhibitor CAL-101 shows promising preclinical activity in chronic lymphocytic leukemia by antagonizing intrinsic and extrinsic cellular survival signals

Targeted therapy with imatinib in chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) prompted a new treatment paradigm. Unlike CML, chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) lacks an aberrant fusion protein kinase but instead displays increased phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) activity. To date, PI3K inhibitor development has been limited because of the requirement of this pathway for many essential cellular functions. Identification of the hematopoietic-selective isoform PI3K-δ unlocks a new therapeutic potential for B-cell malignancies. Herein, we demonstrate that PI3K has increased enzymatic activity and that PI3K-δ is expressed in CLL cells. A PI3K-δ selective inhibitor CAL-101 promoted apoptosis in primary CLL cells ex vivo in a dose- and time-dependent fashion that was independent of common prognostic markers. CAL-101-mediated cytotoxicity was caspase dependent and was not diminished by coculture on stromal cells. In addition, CAL-101 abrogated protection from spontaneous apoptosis induced by B cell-activating factors CD40L, TNF-α, and fibronectin. In contrast to malignant cells, CAL-101 does not promote apoptosis in normal T cells or natural killer cells, nor does it diminish antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity. However, CAL-101 did decrease activated T-cell production of various inflammatory and antiapoptotic cytokines. Collectively, these studies provide rationale for the clinical development of CAL-101 as a first-in-class targeted therapy for CLL and related B-cell lymphoproliferative disorders.

The emerging mechanisms of isoform-specific PI3K signalling

Phosphoinositide 3-kinases (PI3Ks) function early in intracellular signal transduction pathways and affect many biological functions. A further level of complexity derives from the existence of eight PI3K isoforms, which are divided into class I, class II and class III PI3Ks. PI3K signalling has been implicated in metabolic control, immunity, angiogenesis and cardiovascular homeostasis, and is one of the most frequently deregulated pathways in cancer. PI3K inhibitors have recently entered clinical trials in oncology. A better understanding of how the different PI3K isoforms are regulated and control signalling could uncover their roles in pathology and reveal in which disease contexts their blockade could be most beneficial.

A role for phosphoinositol 3-kinase delta in the impairment of glucocorticoid responsiveness in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

BACKGROUND

Glucocorticoid function is markedly impaired in the lungs of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). This reduction in glucocorticoid sensitivity might be due to an oxidant-mediated increase in phosphoinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) delta signaling.

OBJECTIVE

We sought to determine the role of PI3Kdelta in the reduced glucocorticoid responsiveness in patients with COPD.

METHODS

Peripheral lung tissue was obtained from 24 patients with COPD, 20 age-matched smokers with normal lung function, and 13 nonsmokers. Peripheral blood monocytes were isolated from 9 patients with COPD and 7 age-matched smokers with normal lung function and from healthy volunteers.

RESULTS

The expressions of PI3Kdelta and Akt phosphorylation were increased in macrophages from patients with COPD compared with those from control groups of age-matched smokers and nonsmokers. In vitro oxidative stress induced phosphorylation of Akt in monocytes and macrophages, which was abolished by means of selective inhibition of PI3Kdelta but not PI3Kgamma. Dexamethasone was less effective at repressing LPS-induced GM-CSF and CXC motif chemokine 8 release in blood monocytes from patients with COPD compared with age-matched smokers. This reduced sensitivity was reversed by inhibition of PI3Kdelta but not PI3Kgamma.

CONCLUSION

PI3Kdelta expression and signaling is increased in the lungs of patients with COPD. Selective inhibition of PI3Kdelta might restore glucocorticoid function in patients with COPD and might therefore present a potential therapeutic target.

Phosphoinositide signalling pathways in metabolic regulation

The Insulin Receptor/PI 3-kinase (INSR/PI3K) signalling pathway is a key regulator of cell and organismal metabolism. Phosphoinositides generated by PI 3-kinases following insulin and other metabolic hormone receptor activation give rise to signalling cascades involving a multitude of effector molecules. The physiological roles of these molecules have been dissected with the use of both pharmacological and genetic tools. Furthermore, tissue-specific mutagenesis has revealed the extent to which individual insulin-target organs and signalling molecules contribute to whole-body carbohydrate and lipid homeostasis. These studies have generated important information with respect to the function of these molecules in normal physiology and their implication in the development of metabolic diseases such as type-2 diabetes and obesity.

PI3K: from the bench to the clinic and back

From humble beginnings over 25 years ago as a lipid kinase activity associated with certain oncoproteins, PI3K (phosphoinositide 3-kinase) has been catapulted to the forefront of drug development in cancer, immunity and thrombosis, with the first clinical trials of PI3K pathway inhibitors now in progress. Here, we give a brief overview of some key discoveries in the PI3K area and their impact, and include thoughts on the current state of the field, and where it could go from here.PI3K has become a very intense area of research, with over 2,000 publications on PI3K in PubMed for 2009 alone. The expectations for a therapeutic impact of intervention with PI3K activity are high, and progress in the clinical arena is being monitored by many. However, targeted therapies almost invariably encounter roadblocks, often exposing unresolved questions in the basic understanding of the target. PI3K will most likely be no exception. Below, we describe some of these early "surprises" and how these inform and shape basic science investigations.

PI3K p110 alpha and p110 beta have differential effects on Akt activation and protection against oxidative stress-induced apoptosis in myoblasts

Catalytic subunits of PI3K play a critical role in growth factor signaling and survival by phosphorylating inositol lipids. We found that PI3K Class IA p110α and p110β have distinct functions in myoblasts. Inhibition of p110α reduced IGF-I-stimulated Akt activity and prevented IGF-I-mediated survival in H₂O₂-treated cells; in contrast, siRNA knockdown of p110β increased IGF-I-stimulated Akt activity. However, inhibition of p110β catalytic activity did not increase IGF-I-stimulated Akt activity, suggesting a role for p110β protein interactions rather than decreased generation of phosphoinositides in this effect. Increased Akt activity in p110β-deficient myoblasts was associated with diminished ERK activation as well as ERK-dependent IRS-1 636/639 phosphorylation, findings we show to be independent of p110β catalytic function, but associated with IGF-IR endocytosis. We also report that IGF-I protects myoblasts from H₂O₂-induced apoptosis through a mechanism that requires p110α, but may be independent of Akt or ERK under conditions of Akt and ERK inhibition. These observations suggest that both p110α and p110β are essential for growth and metabolism in myoblasts. Overall, our results provide new evidence for the roles of p110 isoforms in promoting cellular proliferation and homeostasis, IGF-IR internalization, and in opposing apoptosis.

Specific role of phosphoinositide 3-kinase p110alpha in the regulation of phagocytosis and pinocytosis in macrophages

PI3K (phosphoinositide 3-kinase) alpha has been implicated in phagocytosis and fluid-phase pinocytosis in macrophages. The subtype-specific role of PI3K in these processes is poorly understood. To elucidate this issue, we made Raw 264.7 cells (a mouse leukaemic monocyte-macrophage cell line) deficient in each of the class-I PI3K catalytic subunits: p110alpha, p110beta, p110delta and p110gamma. Among these cells, only the p110alpha-deficient cells exhibited lower phagocytosis of opsonized and non-opsonized zymosan. The p110alpha-deficient cells also showed the impaired phagocytosis of IgG-opsonized erythrocytes and the impaired fluid-phase pinocytosis of dextran (molecular mass of 40 kDa). Receptor-mediated pinocytosis of DiI (1,1'-dioctadecyl-3,3,3',3'-tetramethylindocarbocyanine perchlorate)-labelled acetylated low-density lipoprotein and fluid-phase pinocytosis of Lucifer Yellow (molecular mass of 500 Da) were resistant to p110alpha depletion. None of these processes were impaired in cells lacking p110beta, p110delta or p110gamma, but were susceptible to a pan-PI3K inhibitor wortmannin. In cells deficient in the enzymes catalysing PtdIns(3,4,5)P3 breakdown [PTEN (phosphatase and tensin homologue deleted on chromosome 10) or SHIP-1 (Src-homology-2-domain-containing inositol phosphatase-1)], uptake of IgG-opsonized particles was enhanced. These results indicated that phagocytosis and fluid-phase pinocytosis of larger molecules are dependent on the lipid kinase activity of p110alpha, whereas pinocytosis via clathrin-coated and small non-coated vesicles may depend on subtypes of PI3Ks other than class I.

Why do phosphatidylinositol kinases have so many isoforms?

Macromolecules can be transported into the cells by endocytosis, either by phagocytosis or by pinocytosis. Typically, phagocytosis involves the uptake of solid large particles mediated by cell-surface receptors, whereas pinocytosis takes up fluid and solutes. The synthesis of PtdIns(4,5)P2 and PtdIns(3,4,5)P3 plays fundamental roles in all forms of endocytosis. Curiously, almost all eukaryotic cells have multiple isoforms of the kinases that synthesize these critical phosphatidylinositols. In this issue of the Biochemical Journal, Namiko Tamura, Osamu Hazeki and co-workers report that the subunit p110alpha of the type I PI3K (phosphoinositide 3-kinase) is implicated in the phagocytosis and the pinocytosis of large molecules, whereas the receptor-mediated pinocytosis and micropinocytosis of small molecules do not seem to be controlled by this mechanism. The present commentary discusses recent literature that has begun to unravel why cells need so many phosphatidylinositol kinase isoforms, which were previously believed to be redundant.

Colony-stimulating factor-1-induced oscillations in phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase/AKT are required for caspase activation in monocytes undergoing differentiation into macrophages

The differentiation of human peripheral blood monocytes into resident macrophages is driven by colony-stimulating factor-1 (CSF-1), which upon interaction with CSF-1 receptor (CSF-1R) induces within minutes the phosphorylation of its cytoplasmic tyrosine residues and the activation of multiple signaling complexes. Caspase-8 and -3 are activated at day 2 to 3 and contribute to macrophage differentiation, for example, through cleavage of nucleophosmin. Here, we show that the phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase and the downstream serine/threonine kinase AKT connect CSF-1R activation to caspase-8 cleavage. Most importantly, we demonstrate that successive waves of AKT activation with increasing amplitude and duration are required to provoke the formation of the caspase-8-activating molecular platform. CSF-1 and its receptor are both required for oscillations in AKT activation to occur, and expression of a constitutively active AKT mutant prevents the macrophage differentiation process. The extracellular receptor kinase 1/2 pathway is activated with a coordinated oscillatory kinetics in a CSF-1R-dependent manner but plays an accessory role in caspase activation and nucleophosmin cleavage. Altogether, CSF-1 stimulation activates a molecular clock that involves phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase and AKT to promote caspase activation. This oscillatory signaling pathway, which is coordinated with extracellular receptor kinase 1/2 oscillatory activation, involves CSF-1 and CSF-1R and controls the terminal differentiation of macrophages.

Form and flexibility in phosphoinositide 3-kinases

PI3Ks (phosphoinositide 3-kinases) have important roles in a variety of cellular activities, including survival, proliferation, growth, shape, migration and intracellular sorting. Consistent with their function in cell survival and growth, the gene for the class Iα PI3K catalytic subunit is a common site of gain-of-function mutations in cancers. Ongoing structural studies of these enzymes and the complexes they make with their regulatory subunits have helped to clarify the mechanistic basis of this role in tumour development. The broad spectrum of biological activities associated with various isotypes of class I PI3Ks has led to an intense search for isotype-specific inhibitors as tools in mammalian cell biology and for therapeutic application. Structural studies of the class I PI3Ks suggest that flexibility may be a component of the catalytic cycle of the enzymes.

Distinct roles for isoforms of the catalytic subunit of class-IA PI3K in the regulation of behaviour of murine embryonic stem cells

Self-renewal of embryonic stem cells (ESCs) is essential for maintenance of pluripotency, which is defined as the ability to differentiate into any specialised cell type comprising the adult organism. Understanding the mechanisms that regulate ESC self-renewal and proliferation is required before ESCs can fulfil their potential in regenerative therapies, and murine ESCs (mESCs) have been widely used as a model. Members of the class-IA phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) family of lipid kinases regulate a variety of physiological responses, including cell migration, proliferation and survival. PI3Ks have been reported to regulate both proliferation and self-renewal of mESCs. Here we investigate the contribution of specific class-IA PI3K isoforms to the regulation of mESC fate using small-molecule inhibitors with selectivity for particular class-IA PI3K catalytic isoforms, and siRNA-mediated knockdown. Pharmacological inhibition or knockdown of p110beta promoted mESC differentiation, accompanied by a decrease in expression of Nanog. By comparison, pharmacological inhibition or siRNA-mediated knockdown of p110alpha had no effect on mESC self-renewal per se, but instead appeared to reduce proliferation, which was accompanied by inhibition of leukaemia inhibitory factor (LIF) and insulin-induced PI3K signalling. Our results suggest that PI3Ks contribute to the regulation of both mESC pluripotency and proliferation by differential coupling to selected p110 catalytic isoforms.