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Alfaro-Rodríguez A, González-Piña R. Ozone-induced paradoxical sleep decrease is related to diminished acetylcholine levels in the medial preoptic area in rats. Chem Biol Interact 2005; 151:151-8. [PMID: 15733536 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2004.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2004] [Revised: 09/30/2004] [Accepted: 10/11/2004] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Ozone (O3) produces significant effects on sleep, characterized specially by a decrease in paradoxical sleep (PS) and increase in slow-wave sleep (SWS), which in turn represent a sleep-wake cycle disruption. On the other hand, neuronal activity recorded in the cholinoceptive hypothalamic medial preoptic area (MPO) has been involved in the regulation of sleep. However, there is no direct evidence on the role that acetylcholine (Ach) release in the MPO plays in the sleep-wake cycle. In order to study this relation, we measured the Ach concentration in dialysates collected from MPO in rats exposed to coal-filtered air (clean air) for 48 h and in rats exposed to clean air for 24 h followed by 24-h of O3 exposure to 0.5 ppm. Polygraphic sleep records were taken simultaneously to neurochemical sampling. O3 was employed to disrupt the sleep-wake cycle and relate these changes with concomitant disruptions in Ach concentration dialyzed from MPO. A clear circadian pattern of Ach concentration was observed in dialysates from MPO and also in PS, SWS and wakefulness of rats exposed to filtered air. However, O3 exposure decreased the PS by 65% (Mann-Whitney's U-test, p<or=0.0003) and a concomitant decrease of extracellular Ach of 58% (p<or=0.0239) was observed during the light phase. These changes were maintained during the dark phase, although it was also observed that slow-wave sleep increased by 75% (p<or=0.0013) while wakefulness was decreased in 35% (p<or=0.0007). We conclude that Ach release in MPO follows a circadian rhythm that is disrupted by O3 exposure, and these changes are strongly associated with the O3-induced PS disruptions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alfonso Alfaro-Rodríguez
- Dirección General de Investigación, Instituto Nacional de Neurología y Neurocirugía MVS SSA, Insurgentes Sur 3877 Col. La Fama, C.P. 14269 Tlalpan, México City, Mexico.
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52
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Chiang AY, Smith WC, Main BW, Sarazan RD. Statistical power analysis for hemodynamic cardiovascular safety pharmacology studies in beagle dogs. J Pharmacol Toxicol Methods 2004; 50:121-30. [PMID: 15385086 DOI: 10.1016/j.vascn.2004.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2003] [Accepted: 03/19/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION We studied the statistical power of a replicated Latin square design where eight animals each receive a vehicle control and three dose levels of a drug on four separate dosing days. Cardiovascular parameters evaluated in the study were systolic arterial pressure, diastolic arterial pressure, left ventricular heart rate, and dP/dt(max). METHODS Observations were simulated based on historical data and drug response profiles from cardiovascular safety pharmacology studies conducted at Lilly Research Laboratories. Statistical analysis for treatment effects was performed using a linear mixed model. Monotonicity of dose response was examined using sequential linear trend tests based on ordinal spacing of dose levels. RESULTS The replicated Latin square design for cardiovascular safety pharmacology studies is shown to have at least an 80% power of detecting changes from control of at least a 10% increment in systolic and diastolic pressure and a 15% increment in heart rate and dP/dt(max). The power is not sensitive to the shape of dose response profile over time. DISCUSSION Several unique features of our statistical power evaluation include the comparison of different covariance structures and drug response profiles. The procedure can also be applied to future power evaluations of other cardiovascular parameters, such as the QT interval, and the loss of statistical power due to missing observations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan Y Chiang
- Statistics and Information Sciences and Investigative Toxicology, Lilly Research Laboratories, Eli Lilly and Company, P.O. Box 708, Greenfield, IN 46140, USA.
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Abstract
There is a clear need to optimise the use of animals in research and to ensure that the studies that are done make a worthwhile contribution to scientific knowledge. Research that has an inappropriate study design, or is improperly analysed or interpreted, may mislead and is not defensible. Published reviews of the quality of design and analysis in clinical studies are used to see what lessons can be drawn in respect of animal research. The need for clear and full reporting of research is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas G Altman
- Cancer Research UK/NHS Centre for Statistics in Medicine, Institute of Health Sciences, Headington, Oxford OX3 7LF, UK.
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van Wilgenburg H, van Schaick Zillesen PG, Krulichova I. Experimental Design: Computer Simulation for Improving the Precision of an Experiment. Altern Lab Anim 2004; 32 Suppl 1B:607-11. [DOI: 10.1177/026119290403201s102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
An interactive computer-assisted learning program, ExpDesign, that has been developed for simulating animal experiments, is introduced. The program guides students through the steps for designing animal experiments and estimating optimal sample sizes. Principles are introduced for controlling variation, establishing the experimental unit, selecting randomised block and factorial experimental designs, and applying the appropriate statistical analysis. Sample Power is a supporting tool that visualises the process of estimating the sample size. The aim of developing the ExpDesign program has been to make biomedical research workers more familiar with some basic principles of experimental design and statistics and to facilitate discussions with statisticians.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henk van Wilgenburg
- Department of Pharmacology, Academic Medical Centre, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | - Iva Krulichova
- Department of Biophysics, Charles University, Hradec Králové, Czech Republic
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55
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Stephens ML, Conlee K, Alvino G, Rowan AN. Possibilities for refinement and reduction: future improvements within regulatory testing. ILAR J 2003; 43 Suppl:S74-9. [PMID: 12388856 DOI: 10.1093/ilar.43.suppl_1.s74] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Approaches and challenges to refining and reducing animal use in regulatory testing are reviewed. Regulatory testing accounts for the majority of animals reported in the most painful and/or distressful categories in the United States and Canada. Refinements in testing, including the use of humane endpoints, are of increasing concern. Traditional approaches to reduction (e.g., improving experimental design) are being supplemented with complementary approaches, such as the use of tier testing to eliminate some chemicals prior to in vivo testing. Technological advances in telemetry and noninvasive techniques will help decrease either the demand for animals in testing or animal suffering. Further decreases in animal use will stem from international harmonization and coordination of testing programs. Progress in refinement and reduction faces a variety of broad challenges, including limited funding for research. In the specific area of refinement, a key challenge is the issue of distress (as distinct from pain). In the area of reduction, the practice of using unjustifiably high numbers of animals from small species (e.g., rodents) should be challenged. One case study of the use of carbon dioxide as a euthanasia agent illustrates the need for further analysis and research. Notwithstanding the complexities and challenges, the potential for refinement and reduction in regulatory testing is encouraging.
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56
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael F W Festing
- c/o FRAME (Fund for the Replacement of Animals in Medical Experiments), Russell and Burch House, 96-98 North Sherwood Street, Nottingham NG1 4EE, UK.
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57
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Wrobel G, Schlingemann J, Hummerich L, Kramer H, Lichter P, Hahn M. Optimization of high-density cDNA-microarray protocols by 'design of experiments'. Nucleic Acids Res 2003; 31:e67. [PMID: 12799456 PMCID: PMC162342 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gng067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Expression analysis using microarray technology implies a complex experimental procedure with a large number of parameters affecting the final result. We have demonstrated that optimization of such a complex protocol can be far better handled using design of experiments (DOE) than by working on a single parameter at a time. Based on the results of a screening design, we developed a spotting buffer composed of formamide, betaine and nitrocellulose. This buffer provides a 2-fold increase in signal-to-background ratio compared to 3x SSC. Comparison to seven other buffers tested on 10 different substrates revealed it had the highest sensitivity. DNA dissolved in this buffer can be spotted on epoxysilane-coated microscope slides at a density of up to 70 000 spots per slide. A second DOE approach characterized the RNA labeling process with regard to the concentration of fluorescent dyes, dNTPs and reverse transcriptase. Adjust ments of the concentrations of dNTPs, as well as reverse transcriptase, towards the optimum, produced an improvement in the performance of the labeling procedure by a factor of 3 (Cy3) and 10 (Cy5). These results demonstrate that the process of establishing a stable expression profiling protocol and its further optimization can be significantly shortened and improved by DOE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gunnar Wrobel
- Division of Molecular Genetics, Deutsches Krebsforschungszentrum, Im Neuenheimer Feld 280, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany
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58
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van Wilgenburg H, van Schaick Zillesen PG, Krulichova I. Sample Power and ExpDesign: tools for improving design of animal experiments. Lab Anim (NY) 2003; 32:39-43. [PMID: 12601388 DOI: 10.1038/laban0303-39] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Proper experimental design, involving the correct number of animals, should be a basic skill for any scientist working with animals. The authors describe a university-developed and freely available tutorial program and an interactive computer-assisted learning program, both of which guide students through the steps necessary for designing animal experiments and estimating optimal sample sizes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henk van Wilgenburg
- Department of Pharmacology, Academic Medical Centre, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 15, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
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59
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Shaw R, Festing MFW, Peers I, Furlong L. Use of factorial designs to optimize animal experiments and reduce animal use. ILAR J 2002; 43:223-32. [PMID: 12391398 DOI: 10.1093/ilar.43.4.223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Optimization of experiments, such as those used in drug discovery, can lead to useful savings of scientific resources. Factors such as sex, strain, and age of the animals and protocol-specific factors such as timing and methods of administering treatments can have an important influence on the response of animals to experimental treatments. Factorial experimental designs can be used to explore which factors and what levels of these factors will maximize the difference between a vehicle control and a known positive control treatment. This information can then be used to design more efficient experiments, either by reducing the numbers of animals used or by increasing the sensitivity so that smaller biological effects can be detected. A factorial experimental design approach is more effective and efficient than the older approach of varying one factor at a time. Two examples of real factorial experiments reveal how using this approach can potentially lead to a reduction in animal use and savings in financial and scientific resources without loss of scientific validity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Shaw
- Global Enabling Science and Discovery, Research and Development, AstraZeneca Ltd., Macclesfield, UK
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60
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Festing MFW, Altman DG. Guidelines for the design and statistical analysis of experiments using laboratory animals. ILAR J 2002; 43:244-58. [PMID: 12391400 DOI: 10.1093/ilar.43.4.244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 551] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
For ethical and economic reasons, it is important to design animal experiments well, to analyze the data correctly, and to use the minimum number of animals necessary to achieve the scientific objectives---but not so few as to miss biologically important effects or require unnecessary repetition of experiments. Investigators are urged to consult a statistician at the design stage and are reminded that no experiment should ever be started without a clear idea of how the resulting data are to be analyzed. These guidelines are provided to help biomedical research workers perform their experiments efficiently and analyze their results so that they can extract all useful information from the resulting data. Among the topics discussed are the varying purposes of experiments (e.g., exploratory vs. confirmatory); the experimental unit; the necessity of recording full experimental details (e.g., species, sex, age, microbiological status, strain and source of animals, and husbandry conditions); assigning experimental units to treatments using randomization; other aspects of the experiment (e.g., timing of measurements); using formal experimental designs (e.g., completely randomized and randomized block); estimating the size of the experiment using power and sample size calculations; screening raw data for obvious errors; using the t-test or analysis of variance for parametric analysis; and effective design of graphical data.
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62
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Metz B, Hendriksen CFM, Jiskoot W, Kersten GFA. Reduction of animal use in human vaccine quality control: opportunities and problems. Vaccine 2002; 20:2411-30. [PMID: 12057596 DOI: 10.1016/s0264-410x(02)00192-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
In vivo assays play a crucial role in the assessment of the potency and safety of human vaccines. Robust vaccine production procedures, improved characterisation methods and development of well-characterised vaccines create possibilities to reduce animal use. In this paper the current status in this field is reviewed. Achievements with regard to in vivo and in vitro potency and safety testing are discussed as well as new developments and possibilities in the field of in vitro characterisation of vaccine components. Finally, validation and implementation issues will be dealt with. Although replacement of in vivo tests for batch release of existing vaccines is difficult, emerging technologies allow well-considered reduction of in vivo experiments during product and process development and improvement. Inextricably bound up with this approach is good manufacturing practice (GMP), resulting in robust, validated production processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernard Metz
- Laboratory for Product and Process Development, National Institute of Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), P.O. Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands.
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63
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Kopaladze RA. Ivan P. Pavlov's view on vivisection. INTEGRATIVE PHYSIOLOGICAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE PAVLOVIAN SOCIETY 2000; 35:266-71. [PMID: 11330490 DOI: 10.1007/bf02688789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Pavlov's points of view on vivisection are analyzed and compared with the modern ethical conception of carrying out experiments on animals. It appears that Pavlov's points of view are largely in accordance with modern ethical requirements for experimenting on animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- R A Kopaladze
- Scientific Research Laboratory of Experimental-Biological Models, Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, Moscow Region
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64
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Kuhn MA, Smith PD, Hill DP, Ko F, Meltzer DD, Vande Berg JS, Robson MC. In vitro fibroblast populated collagen lattices are not good models of in vivo clinical wound healing. Wound Repair Regen 2000; 8:270-6. [PMID: 11013018 DOI: 10.1046/j.1524-475x.2000.00270.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
In chronic wounds, the healing process is prolonged and incomplete, proceeding in an uncoordinated manner, and resulting in poor anatomical and functional outcome. There have been numerous attempts to discover models that mimic human wound healing processes. The fibroblast populated collagen lattice is one such model that has been proposed. This study evaluated whether the fibroblast populated collagen lattice can be a model of chronic wound healing using the pressure ulcer as a paradigm. Fibroblast cultures of wound biopsies and wound volume measurements were obtained serially during a four arm blinded, placebo-controlled sequential cytokine clinical trial of pressure ulcers. Fibroblasts obtained from study patients were added to collagen lattices and contraction was determined daily for 10 days. Collagen gel-area measurements were converted to reflect percentage of gel contraction. These data of both edge and base wound biopsies on days 0, 10, and 36 were categorized into treatment groups and one-way analysis of variance showed no significant differences in contraction among these groups. When considering all fibroblast populated collagen lattices, there was significantly greater contraction at days 10 and 36 for cells from both edge and base biopsies compared to day 0 (p < 0.05). The Spearman Rank Correlation test comparing all patients with fibroblast populated collagen lattice results from fibroblasts obtained at the edge or base of the wound at days 0, 10, and 36 and clinical pressure ulcer healing on day 36 showed no correlation. This lack of correlation not only persisted for each of the four treatment arms but also for responder status based on decrease in wound volume over the 35 day trial period. In conclusion, chronic wound healing is a complex process that is not modeled by in vitro fibroblast populated collagen lattices.
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Affiliation(s)
- M A Kuhn
- Institute of Tissue Regeneration Repair and Rehabilitation, Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Bay Pines, Florida 33744, USA
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65
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United Kingdom Co-ordinating Committee on Cancer Research (UKCCCR) Guidelines for the Welfare of Animals in Experimental Neoplasia (Second Edition). Br J Cancer 1998; 77:1-10. [PMID: 9459138 PMCID: PMC2151254 DOI: 10.1038/bjc.1998.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 360] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
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66
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D'Aquila P, Monleon S, Borsini F, Brain P, Willner P. Anti-anhedonic actions of the novel serotonergic agent flibanserin, a potential rapidly-acting antidepressant. Eur J Pharmacol 1997; 340:121-32. [PMID: 9537806 DOI: 10.1016/s0014-2999(97)01412-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Chronic exposure to mild unpredictable stress has previously been found to depress the consumption of palatable sweet solutions and to block the formation of conditioned place preferences; these effects are reversed by chronic treatment with tricyclic or atypical antidepressant drugs. The present study was designed to evaluate the antidepressant-like activity in this model of flibaserin (BIMT-17), a novel serotonergic agent with 5-HT1A receptor agonist and 5-HT2 receptor antagonist properties. Two experiments were conducted, using rats (experiment 1) and mice (experiment 2). In experiment 1, decreases in sucrose intake were seen in rats exposed to chronic mild stress, but the effect was unreliable in this study, and sucrose testing was terminated after 7 weeks of stress. Beginning after 5 weeks of stress, groups of control and stressed animals were treated daily with vehicle, fluoxetine (5 mg/kg) or flibanserin (5, 10 or 20 mg/kg). After 6 weeks of treatment, all animals were tested for acquisition of food-reinforced place preference conditioning. Conditioning was seen in all groups other than the vehicle-treated stressed animals. We also tested the locomotor stimulant effect of a single injection of the dopamine D2/D3 receptor agonist quinpirole (0.2 mg/kg). The effect of quinpirole was potentiated by fluoxetine in control animals, and by both fluoxetine and flibanserin (all doses) in stressed animals. In experiment 2, long-lasting decreases in sucrose intake were seen in mice exposed to chronic mild stress. The effects were reversed by chronic (4 weeks) treatment with fluoxetine (5 mg/kg) or flibanserin (2.5 or 5 mg/kg); the full effect of flibanserin was seen after the first injection. All animals received a single injection of raclopride (0.1 mg/kg) immediately prior to a sucrose intake test on day 27 of drug treatment. Raclopride decreased sucrose intake only in the three drug-treated stressed groups. The results support a rapid antidepressant-like action of flibanserin, and suggest that this effect involves sensitization of dopamine D2/D3 receptor-mediated transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- P D'Aquila
- Department of Psychology, University of Wales, Swansea, UK
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67
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Festing MFW. Variation and its implications for the design of experiments in toxicological research. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1997. [DOI: 10.1007/bf02658690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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68
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Boyle CR, Montgomery RD. An application of the augmented randomized complete block design to poultry research. Poult Sci 1996; 75:601-7. [PMID: 8722908 DOI: 10.3382/ps.0750601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Avian health researchers are often faced with the need to evaluate large numbers of potential disease agents, but limited facilities and the desire to minimize animal usage and costs prohibit large, all-inclusive experiments. Plant breeders encounter a similar problem with variety screening experiments in which a large number of varieties must be evaluated, but the supply of seed may be limited. In that situation, the use of augmented experimental designs has proven effective for obtaining the replication needed for valid statistical analysis. Those designs rely on the use of multiple trials consisting of different sets of plant varieties; standard varieties are included as controls or checks in every trial to provide an estimate of experimental error. Although the comparisons among varieties are not all equally precise and the estimate of experimental error may be biased, use of augmented designs can reduce the time and number of experimental units needed to isolate the most promising new varieties for further in-depth study. Augmented designs can similarly be applied to screening experiments in poultry research. This paper describes the augmented randomized complete block design and its application in an avian health setting. Data collected in an exploratory study of infectious enteritis in chickens illustrate details of the statistical analysis. Suggestions for implementing this analysis using the SAS statistical analysis package are also given.
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Affiliation(s)
- C R Boyle
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Mississippi State University, Mississippi 39762-9825, USA
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69
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Idée JM, Bonnemain B. Reliability of experimental models of iodinated contrast media-induced acute renal failure. From methodological considerations to pathophysiology. Invest Radiol 1996; 31:230-41. [PMID: 8721963 DOI: 10.1097/00004424-199604000-00008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- J M Idée
- Laboratoire Guerbet, Pharmacotoxicology Department, Aulnay-sous-Bois, France
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70
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Fisher C. A New Reductionism for Animal Research. Altern Lab Anim 1995. [DOI: 10.1177/026119299502300309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
This article examines the decline in animal experimentation observed in the last 25 years. It considers possible reasons for this and its significance. However, it also asks whether more could have been achieved, and considers what needs to be done to ensure that the current rate of decline is continued and increased — not just in the UK, but also in Europe and beyond. It is concluded that future reductions in animal experimentation need to be a matter of policy, rather than the product of circumstance. Furthermore, it is concluded that policy objectives alone will be insufficient unless supported by a clear strategy and adequate resources for effective implementation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chris Fisher
- Ideal Campaigns, 66 Higham Road, London N17 6NQ, UK
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71
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Balls M. In vitro tests in regulatory toxicology: symposium chairman's summing-up. ARCHIVES OF TOXICOLOGY. SUPPLEMENT. = ARCHIV FUR TOXIKOLOGIE. SUPPLEMENT 1995; 17:205-8. [PMID: 7786157 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-79451-3_17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- M Balls
- European Centre for the Validation of Alternative Methods (ECVAM), JRC Environment Institute, Ispra, Italy
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72
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Balls M. In vitro methods in regulatory toxicology: the crucial significance of validation. ARCHIVES OF TOXICOLOGY. SUPPLEMENT. = ARCHIV FUR TOXIKOLOGIE. SUPPLEMENT 1995; 17:155-62. [PMID: 7786153 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-79451-3_13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- M Balls
- European Centre for the Validation of Alternative Methods (ECVAM), JRC Environment Institute, Ispra, Italy
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