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Biggs LC, Goudy SL, Dunnwald M. Palatogenesis and cutaneous repair: A two-headed coin. Dev Dyn 2014; 244:289-310. [PMID: 25370680 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.24224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2014] [Revised: 10/14/2014] [Accepted: 10/27/2014] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The reparative mechanism that operates following post-natal cutaneous injury is a fundamental survival function that requires a well-orchestrated series of molecular and cellular events. At the end, the body will have closed the hole using processes like cellular proliferation, migration, differentiation and fusion. RESULTS These processes are similar to those occurring during embryogenesis and tissue morphogenesis. Palatogenesis, the formation of the palate from two independent palatal shelves growing towards each other and fusing, intuitively, shares many similarities with the closure of a cutaneous wound from the two migrating epithelial fronts. CONCLUSIONS In this review, we summarize the current information on cutaneous development, wound healing, palatogenesis and orofacial clefting and propose that orofacial clefting and wound healing are conserved processes that share common pathways and gene regulatory networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leah C Biggs
- Department of Pediatrics, Carver College of Medicine, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa
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Bahceciler NN, Babayigit Hocaoglu A, Galip N. A milestone in house dust-mite-allergen immunotherapy: the new sublingual tablet S-524101 (actair). Expert Rev Vaccines 2014; 13:1427-38. [PMID: 25345538 DOI: 10.1586/14760584.2014.972949] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Subcutaneous allergen-specific immunotherapy has long been used in the treatment of allergic rhinitis and/or asthma and its efficacy has been confirmed. However, due to the discomfort of injections and the risk of severe adverse reactions, alternative routes of allergen administration have emerged. Delivery of allergens through the mucosal route had been proposed and investigated thoroughly, confirming the sublingual route to be the most efficacious. Later, the efficacy and safety of this route have been documented by numerous controlled trials both for house dust mite (HDM) and pollens. Recently, sublingual orodispersable grass pollen allergen tablets were in use followed by the newly developed HDM allergen tablets with satisfactory clinical results: Moreover, very recently 1 year of HDM tablet treatment was demonstrated to exert its clinical efficacy 1 year after discontinuation of tablet IT. The persistence of efficacy after only 1 year of treatment is a new and promising era. Currently, Sublingual Immunotherapy is the most easily administered and safe treatment option until more immunogenic, less allergenic and more efficient allergen extracts are developed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nerin N Bahceciler
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, Nicosia, North Cyprus, Turkey
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Healed porcine incisions previously treated with a surgical incision management system: mechanical, histomorphometric, and gene expression properties. Aesthetic Plast Surg 2014; 38:767-78. [PMID: 24912426 DOI: 10.1007/s00266-014-0339-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2013] [Accepted: 04/18/2014] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Computer and bench models have shown previously that surgical incision management with negative pressure (SIM) immediately decreases lateral tissue tension and increases incisional apposition. Better apposition is known to improve healing. Thus, SIM was hypothesized to improve the quality of incisional healing. This study evaluated the impact that 5 days of SIM had on mechanical properties and associated changes in the histology/histomorphometry and gene expression of healed porcine incisions. METHODS One incision in each of the 4 pairs of contralateral, sutured, full-thickness incisions in each of 6 Yucatan swine were treated with either SIM (Prevena™ Incision Management System; n = 24 incisions/treatment group) or standard of care (SOC; sterile absorbent abdominal pads; n = 24/group) for 5 days, after which both groups received SOC for an additional 5 days. Biopsies for gene-expression analyses were collected on days 5 (n = 6 pairs/group), 20 (n = 6 pairs/group), and 40 (n = 12 pairs/group). On day 40, the animals were killed, after which healed incisions were harvested for mechanical testing (n = 12/group) and histologic/histomorphometric evaluation (n = 12/group). RESULTS Compared with SOC-treated incisions, SIM-treated incisions had significantly improved (p < 0.05) mechanical properties (strain energy density, peak strain) and a narrower scar/healed area in the deep dermis on day 40. Differences in gene expression between SOC- and SIM-treated specimens were observed primarily on day 5. The SIM-treated specimens had significantly fewer genes, which were differentially expressed and showed reduced upregulation of genes associated with inflammation, hypoxia, retardation of reepithelialization, impaired wound healing, and scarring. CONCLUSION Early application of SIM improved the quality of healed porcine incisions in terms of mechanical, histomorphometric, and gene-expression properties. NO LEVEL ASSIGNED This journal requires that authors assign a level of evidence to each submission to which Evidence-Based Medicine rankings are applicable. This excludes Review Articles, Book Reviews, and manuscripts that concern Basic Science, Animal Studies, Cadaver Studies, and Experimental Studies. For a full description of these Evidence-Based Medicine ratings, please refer to the Table of Contents or the online Instructions to Authors www.springer.com/00266 .
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Zeitter S, Sikora Z, Jahn S, Stahl F, Strauß S, Lazaridis A, Reimers K, Vogt P, Aust M. Microneedling: Matching the results of medical needling and repetitive treatments to maximize potential for skin regeneration. Burns 2014; 40:966-73. [DOI: 10.1016/j.burns.2013.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2013] [Revised: 10/11/2013] [Accepted: 12/11/2013] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Mills SJ, Farrar MD, Ashcroft GS, Griffiths CEM, Hardman MJ, Rhodes LE. Topical photodynamic therapy following excisional wounding of human skin increases production of transforming growth factor-β3 and matrix metalloproteinases 1 and 9, with associated improvement in dermal matrix organization. Br J Dermatol 2014; 171:55-62. [PMID: 24471979 DOI: 10.1111/bjd.12843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/19/2014] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Animal studies report photodynamic therapy (PDT) to improve healing of excisional wounds; the mechanism is uncertain and equivalent human studies are lacking. OBJECTIVES To explore the impact of methyl aminolaevulinate (MAL)-PDT on clinical and microscopic parameters of human cutaneous excisional wound healing, examining potential modulation through production of transforming growth factor (TGF)-β isoforms. METHODS In 27 healthy older men (60-77 years), a 4-mm punch biopsy wound was created in skin of the upper inner arm and treated with MAL-PDT three times over 5 days. An identical control wound to the contralateral arm was untreated and both wounds left to heal by secondary intention. Wounds were re-excised during the inflammatory phase (7 days, n = 10), matrix remodelling (3 weeks, n = 8) and cosmetic outcome/dermal structure (9 months, n = 9). Production of TGF-β1, TGF-β3 and matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) was assessed by immunohistochemistry alongside microscopic measurement of wound size/area and clinical assessment of wound appearance. RESULTS MAL-PDT delayed re-epithelialization at 7 days, associated with increased inflammation. However, 3 weeks postwounding, treated wounds were smaller with higher production of MMP-1 (P = 0·01), MMP-9 (P = 0·04) and TGF-β3 (P = 0·03). TGF-β1 was lower than control at 7 days and higher at 3 weeks (both P = 0·03). At 9 months, MAL-PDT-treated wounds showed greater, more ordered deposition of collagen I, collagen III and elastin (all P < 0·05). CONCLUSIONS MAL-PDT increases MMP-1, MMP-9 and TGF-β3 production during matrix remodelling, ultimately producing scars with improved dermal matrix architecture.
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Affiliation(s)
- S J Mills
- Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, U.K; Dermatology Centre, Institute of Inflammation and Repair, University of Manchester, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, Salford Royal NHS Foundation Trust, Manchester, U.K
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Glim JE, Everts V, Niessen FB, Ulrich MM, Beelen RHJ. Extracellular matrix components of oral mucosa differ from skin and resemble that of foetal skin. Arch Oral Biol 2014; 59:1048-55. [PMID: 24973518 DOI: 10.1016/j.archoralbio.2014.05.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2014] [Revised: 04/30/2014] [Accepted: 05/07/2014] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Wounds of both the oral mucosa and early-to-mid gestation foetuses have a propensity to heal scarless. Repair of skin wounds in adults, however, regularly results in scar formation. The extracellular matrix (ECM) plays an important role in the process of healing. The fate of scarless or scar forming healing may already be defined by the ECM composition, prior to wounding. In this study, the presence of several ECM components in oral mucosa (palatum) and skin was investigated. DESIGN Immunohistochemical stainings of different ECM components were performed on skin, obtained from abdominal dermolipectomy surgery, and oral mucosa, derived after pharynx reconstruction. RESULTS Expression of fibronectin, its splice variant ED-A, and chondroitin sulphate was elevated in oral tissue, whereas elastin expression was higher in skin. Tenascin-C, hyaluronic acid, biglycan, decorin, and syndecan-1 were expressed at similar levels in both tissues. Oral mucosa contained more blood vessels than skin samples. Finally, oral keratinocytes proliferated more, while dermal keratinocytes demonstrated higher differentiation. CONCLUSIONS Comparing ECM components of the skin and oral mucosa coincides with differences earlier observed between foetal and adult skin, and this might indicate that some ECM components are involved in the mode of repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Judith E Glim
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology & Immunology, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Vincent Everts
- Department of Oral Cell Biology, Academic Centre for Dentistry Amsterdam (ACTA), University of Amsterdam and VU University Amsterdam, Move Research Institute, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Frank B Niessen
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Magda M Ulrich
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology & Immunology, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Association of Dutch Burn Centres, Beverwijk, The Netherlands
| | - Robert H J Beelen
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology & Immunology, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Häkkinen L, Larjava H, Fournier BPJ. Distinct phenotype and therapeutic potential of gingival fibroblasts. Cytotherapy 2014; 16:1171-86. [PMID: 24934304 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcyt.2014.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2013] [Revised: 03/13/2014] [Accepted: 04/04/2014] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Gingiva of the oral mucosa provides a practical source to isolate fibroblasts for therapeutic purposes because the tissue is easily accessible, tissue discards are common during routine clinical procedures and wound healing after biopsy is fast and results in complete wound regeneration with very little morbidity or scarring. In addition, gingival fibroblasts have unique traits, including neural crest origin, distinct gene expression and synthetic properties and potent immunomodulatory functions. These characteristics may provide advantages for certain therapeutic approaches over other more commonly used cells, including skin fibroblasts, both in intraoral and extra-oral sites. However, identity and phenotype of gingival fibroblasts, like other fibroblasts, are still not completely understood. Gingival fibroblasts are phenotypically heterogeneous, and these…fibroblast subpopulations may play different roles in tissue maintenance, regeneration and pathologies. The purpose of this review is to summarize what is currently known about gingival fibroblasts, their distinct potential for tissue regeneration and their potential therapeutic uses in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lari Häkkinen
- Department of Oral Biological and Medical Sciences, Faculty of Dentistry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada.
| | - Hannu Larjava
- Department of Oral Biological and Medical Sciences, Faculty of Dentistry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Benjamin P J Fournier
- Department of Oral Biological and Medical Sciences, Faculty of Dentistry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada; Paris Diderot University, Dental School, Rotschild Hospital, AP-HP, Paris, France; UMRS872, Team 5, Molecular Oral Physiopathology, CRC Les Cordeliers, Paris, 75006, INSERM UMRS872, Pierre et Marie Curie University, Paris Descartes University, Paris, France
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Kerwin LY, El Tal AK, Stiff MA, Fakhouri TM. Scar prevention and remodeling: a review of the medical, surgical, topical and light treatment approaches. Int J Dermatol 2014; 53:922-36. [DOI: 10.1111/ijd.12436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Abdel Kader El Tal
- Department of Dermatology; Wayne State University; Dearborn MI USA
- Department of Dermatology; American University of Beirut; New York NY USA
| | - Mark A. Stiff
- Department of Dermatology; Wayne State School of Medicine; Southfield MI USA
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Regulating inflammation using acid-responsive electrospun fibrous scaffolds for skin scarless healing. Mediators Inflamm 2014; 2014:858045. [PMID: 24795507 PMCID: PMC3984856 DOI: 10.1155/2014/858045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2013] [Revised: 02/18/2014] [Accepted: 02/18/2014] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Skin injury in adult mammals brings about a series of events and inflammation in the wounded area is initiated first and provides lots of inflammatory factors, which is critical for the final scar formation. While the postinjured skin of fetus and nude mice heals scarlessly owing to the absence of inflammation or immunodeficient, we designed a feasible acid-responsive ibuprofen-loaded poly(L-lactide) (PLLA) fibrous scaffolds via doping sodium bicarbonate to prevent excessive inflammation and achieve scarless healing finally. The morphological results of in vivo experiments revealed that animals treated with acid-responsive ibuprofen-loaded PLLA fibrous scaffolds exhibited alleviative inflammation, accelerated healing process, and regulated collagen deposition via interference in the collagen distribution, the α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA), and the basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) expression. The lower ratios of collagen I/collagen III and TGF-β1/TGF-β3 and higher ratio of matrix metalloproteinase-1 (MMP-1)/tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1 (TIMP-1) in acid-responsive ibuprofen-loaded PLLA fibrous scaffolds group were confirmed by real-time qPCR as well. These results suggest that inhibiting the excessive inflammation will result in regular collagen distribution and appropriate ratio between the factors, which promote or suppress the scar formation, then decrease the scar area, and finally achieve the scarless healing.
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60
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Hata S, Okamura K, Hatta M, Ishikawa H, Yamazaki J. Proteolytic and non-proteolytic activation of keratinocyte-derived latent TGF-β1 induces fibroblast differentiation in a wound-healing model using rat skin. J Pharmacol Sci 2014; 124:230-43. [PMID: 24492413 DOI: 10.1254/jphs.13209fp] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) reportedly causes the differentiation of fibroblasts to myofibroblasts during wound healing. We investigated the mechanism underlying the activation of latent TGF-β1 released by keratinocytes in efforts to identify promising pharmacological approaches for the prevention of hypertrophic scar formation. A three-dimensional collagen gel matrix culture was prepared using rat keratinocytes and dermal fibroblasts. Stratified keratinocytes promoted the TGF receptor-dependent increase in α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) immunostaining and mRNA levels in fibroblasts. Latent TGF-β1 was found to be localized suprabasally and secreted. α-SMA expression was inhibited by an anti-αv-integrin antibody and a matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) inhibitor, GM6001. In a two-dimensional fibroblast culture, α-SMA expression depended on the production of endogenous TGF-β1 and required αv-integrin or MMP for the response to recombinant latent TGF-β1. In keratinocyte-conditioned medium, MMP-dependent latent TGF-β1 secretion was detected. Applying this medium to the fibroblast culture enhanced α-SMA production. This effect was decreased by GM6001, the anti-αv-integrin antibody, or the preabsorption of latent TGF-β1. These results indicate that keratinocytes secrete latent TGF-β1, which is liberated to fibroblasts over distance and is activated to produce α-SMA with the aid of a positive-feedback loop. MMP inhibition was effective for targeting both keratinocytes and fibroblasts in this model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shozaburo Hata
- Department of Oral Growth & Development, Fukuoka Dental College, Japan
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61
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Hartwell R, Lai A, Ghahary A. Modulation of extracellular matrix through keratinocyte–fibroblast crosstalk. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014. [DOI: 10.1586/edm.09.55] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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Over, and underexpression of endothelin 1 and TGF-beta family ligands and receptors in lung tissue of broilers with pulmonary hypertension. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2013; 2013:190382. [PMID: 24286074 PMCID: PMC3826341 DOI: 10.1155/2013/190382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2013] [Revised: 07/13/2013] [Accepted: 09/10/2013] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Transforming growth factor beta (TGF β ) is a family of genes that play a key role in mediating tissue remodeling in various forms of acute and chronic lung disease. In order to assess their role on pulmonary hypertension in broilers, we determined mRNA expression of genes of the TGF β family and endothelin 1 in lung samples from 4-week-old chickens raised either under normal or cold temperature conditions. Both in control and cold-treated groups of broilers, endothelin 1 mRNA expression levels in lungs from ascitic chickens were higher than levels from healthy birds (P < 0.05), whereas levels in animals with cardiac failure were intermediate. Conversely, TGF β 2 and TGF β 3 gene expression in lungs were higher in healthy animals than in ascitic animals in both groups (P < 0.05). TGF β 1, T β RI, and T β RII mRNA gene expression among healthy, ascitic, and chickens with cardiac failure showed no differences (P > 0.05). BAMBI mRNA gene expression was lowest in birds with ascites only in the control group as compared with the values from healthy birds (P < 0.05).
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63
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Xu W, Jia S, Xie P, Zhong A, Galiano RD, Mustoe TA, Hong SJ. The expression of proinflammatory genes in epidermal keratinocytes is regulated by hydration status. J Invest Dermatol 2013; 134:1044-1055. [PMID: 24226202 DOI: 10.1038/jid.2013.425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2013] [Revised: 09/09/2013] [Accepted: 09/13/2013] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Mucosal wounds heal more rapidly, exhibit less inflammation, and are associated with minimal scarring when compared with equivalent cutaneous wounds. We previously demonstrated that cutaneous epithelium exhibits an exaggerated response to injury compared with mucosal epithelium. We hypothesized that treatment of injured skin with a semiocclusive dressing preserves the hydration of the skin and results in a wound healing phenotype that more closely resembles that of mucosa. Here we explored whether changes in hydration status alter epidermal gene expression patterns in rabbit partial-thickness incisional wounds. Using microarray studies on injured epidermis, we showed that global gene expression patterns in highly occluded versus non-occluded wounds are distinct. Many genes including IL-1β, IL-8, TNF-α (tumor necrosis factor-α), and COX-2 (cyclooxygenase 2) are upregulated in non-occluded wounds compared with highly occluded wounds. In addition, decreased levels of hydration resulted in an increased expression of proinflammatory genes in human ex vivo skin culture (HESC) and stratified keratinocytes. Hierarchical analysis of genes using RNA interference showed that both TNF-α and IL-1β regulate the expression of IL-8 through independent pathways in response to reduced hydration. Furthermore, both gene knockdown and pharmacological inhibition studies showed that COX-2 mediates the TNF-α/IL-8 pathway by increasing the production of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2). IL-8 in turn controls the production of matrix metalloproteinase-9 in keratinocytes. Our data show that hydration status directly affects the expression of inflammatory signaling in the epidermis. The identification of genes involved in the epithelial hydration pathway provides an opportunity to develop strategies to reduce scarring and optimize wound healing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Xu
- Laboratory for Wound Repair and Regenerative Medicine, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Shengxian Jia
- Laboratory for Wound Repair and Regenerative Medicine, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Ping Xie
- Laboratory for Wound Repair and Regenerative Medicine, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Aimei Zhong
- Laboratory for Wound Repair and Regenerative Medicine, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois, USA; Department of Plastic Surgery, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Robert D Galiano
- Laboratory for Wound Repair and Regenerative Medicine, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Thomas A Mustoe
- Laboratory for Wound Repair and Regenerative Medicine, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois, USA.
| | - Seok J Hong
- Laboratory for Wound Repair and Regenerative Medicine, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois, USA.
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Fournier BPJ, Larjava H, Häkkinen L. Gingiva as a source of stem cells with therapeutic potential. Stem Cells Dev 2013; 22:3157-77. [PMID: 23944935 DOI: 10.1089/scd.2013.0015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Postnatal connective tissues contain phenotypically heterogeneous cells populations that include distinct fibroblast subpopulations, pericytes, myofibroblasts, fibrocytes, and tissue-specific mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs). These cells play key roles in tissue development, maintenance, and repair and contribute to various pathologies. Depending on the origin of tissue, connective tissue cells, including MSCs, have different phenotypes. Understanding the identity and specific functions of these distinct tissue-specific cell populations may allow researchers to develop better treatment modalities for tissue regeneration and find novel approaches to prevent pathological conditions. Interestingly, MSCs from adult oral mucosal gingiva possess distinct characteristics, including neural crest origin, multipotent differentiation capacity, fetal-like phenotype, and potent immunomodulatory properties. These characteristics and an easy, relatively noninvasive access to gingival tissue, and fast tissue regeneration after tissue biopsy make gingiva an attractive target for cell isolation for therapeutic purposes aiming to promote tissue regeneration and fast, scar-free wound healing. The purpose of this review is to discuss the identity, phenotypical heterogeneity, and function of gingival MSCs and summarize what is currently known about their properties, role in scar-free healing, and their future therapeutic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin P J Fournier
- 1 Department of Oral Biological and Medical Sciences, Faculty of Dentistry, University of British Columbia , Vancouver, Canada
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65
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Glim JE, van Egmond M, Niessen FB, Everts V, Beelen RHJ. Detrimental dermal wound healing: what can we learn from the oral mucosa? Wound Repair Regen 2013; 21:648-60. [PMID: 23927738 DOI: 10.1111/wrr.12072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2013] [Accepted: 06/01/2013] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Wounds in adults are frequently accompanied by scar formation. This scar can become fibrotic due to an imbalance between extracellular matrix (ECM) synthesis and ECM degradation. Oral mucosal wounds, however, heal in an accelerated fashion, displaying minimal scar formation. The exact mechanisms of scarless oral healing are yet to be revealed. This review highlights possible mechanisms involved in the difference between scar-forming dermal vs. scarless oral mucosal wound healing. Differences were found in expression of ECM components, such as procollagen I and tenascin-C. Oral wounds contained fewer immune mediators, blood vessels, and profibrotic mediators but had more bone marrow-derived cells, a higher reepithelialization rate, and faster proliferation of fibroblasts compared with dermal wounds. These results form a basis for further research that should be focused on the relations among ECM, immune cells, growth factors, and fibroblast phenotypes, as understanding scarless oral mucosal healing may ultimately lead to novel therapeutic strategies to prevent fibrotic scars.
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Affiliation(s)
- Judith E Glim
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology & Immunology, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Denis JF, Lévesque M, Tran SD, Camarda AJ, Roy S. Axolotl as a Model to Study Scarless Wound Healing in Vertebrates: Role of the Transforming Growth Factor Beta Signaling Pathway. Adv Wound Care (New Rochelle) 2013; 2:250-260. [PMID: 24527347 DOI: 10.1089/wound.2012.0371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2012] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE The skin is our largest organ, with the primary role of protection against assaults from the outside world. It also suffers frequent damage, from minor scrapes to, more rarely, complete destruction such as in third-degree burns. It is therefore, by its nature, an organ that would benefit tremendously from being able to regenerate itself. RECENT ADVANCES This review highlights the axolotl, a less well-known model organism capable of scarless wound healing and regeneration. Axolotls are salamanders with unsurpassed healing and regenerative capacities. Understanding how these animals can regenerate their tissues could help identify the pathways that need to be activated or inhibited in humans to improve wound healing. CRITICAL ISSUES Presently, there are no therapies leading to skin regeneration or scarless wound healing. Various animal models have thus been developed for use in research, such as mice and pigs, to help us understand how wound healing could be improved or stimulated. However, these more common models cannot regenerate and, consequently, cannot direct us toward a solution to regenerate damaged tissues. Axolotls, on the other hand, can regenerate perfectly and therefore may offer avenues to identify molecular targets for therapeutic intervention. FUTURE DIRECTIONS Identifying signaling pathways regulating tissue regeneration in vertebrate models is important. The use of animals such as axolotls, which hold the secret of full regeneration, will likely play a significant role in helping us achieve scarless wound healing for humans.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Simon D. Tran
- Department of Faculty of Dentistry, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
| | | | - Stéphane Roy
- Department of Biochemistry, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
- Department of Stomatology, University of Montreal, Montreal, Canada
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Pan HA, Liang JY, Hung YC, Lee CH, Chiou JC, Huang GS. The spatial and temporal control of cell migration by nanoporous surfaces through the regulation of ERK and integrins in fibroblasts. Biomaterials 2013; 34:841-53. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2012.09.078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2012] [Accepted: 09/29/2012] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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69
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Häkkinen L, Larjava H, Koivisto L. Granulation tissue formation and remodeling. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.1111/etp.12008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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70
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Nie J, Fu X, Han W. Microenvironment-dependent homeostasis and differentiation of epidermal basal undifferentiated keratinocytes and their clinical applications in skin repair. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2012; 27:531-5. [PMID: 23030703 DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-3083.2012.04704.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Skin homeostasis is maintained by controlling the balance between proliferation and differentiation of epidermal stem cells. The microenvironment, including extrinsic stresses, growth factors, soluble molecules, cell-ECM and cell-cell communications, plays an important role in cell fate determination in vivo and in vitro. In response to external signals, keratinocytes cooperate with other cell types to modulate and facilitate the wound microenvironment during wound healing; however, the aberrant signals or conjunctions in the environment will lead to pathologic abnormalities. In addition, despite some drawbacks, the epidermal stem-cellbased bioengineered skin substitutes have greatly improved the quality of cutaneous repair. Thus, exploring the characteristics and regulation mechanisms of microenvironment-dependent homeostasis and differentiation of epidermal basal undifferentiated keratinocytes is necessary to understand skin development and wound repair and to design novel therapeutic strategies for skin wound healing.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Nie
- Department of Molecular Biology, Institute of Basic Medical Science, PLA General Hospital, Beijing, China
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71
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Zimber MP, Mansbridge JN, Taylor M, Stockton T, Hubka M, Baumgartner M, Rheins L, Hubka K, Brandt EN, Kellar R, Naughton GK. Human cell-conditioned media produced under embryonic-like conditions result in improved healing time after laser resurfacing. Aesthetic Plast Surg 2012; 36:431-7. [PMID: 21735336 DOI: 10.1007/s00266-011-9787-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2011] [Accepted: 06/18/2011] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Laser resurfacing procedures are continuing to grow in popularity as patients select less invasive procedures for rejuvenation of photo-damaged and aging skin. However, although physicians have begun exploring options to aid in postlaser healing, currently available treatments have little clinical evidence to support their use for wounded skin. METHODS When grown under conditions of very low oxygen and suspension, a simulation of the embryonic environment, neonatal cells have been found to produce proteins and growth factors in types and quantities similar to those of fetal cells. The human cell-conditioned media (hCCM) produced by the cells was extracted and formulated into a gel to evaluate its efficacy in the healing of postlaser wounds. RESULTS A split-face clinical evaluation of the material was performed, with 42 subjects undergoing combination ablative and nonablative laser procedures. Three concentrations of the hCCM were tested (× 0.1, × 1.0, × 10.0), and a dose-response trend was seen in the blinded physician evaluation, particularly in the assessment of crusting. In addition, transepidermal water loss readings showed a significant difference (p ≤ 0.05), indicating a more rapid return to normal skin barrier function with the active treatment. Histopathologic evaluation of subject biopsies showed reduced inflammation and a more normal epidermal appearance in the active treatment sites. CONCLUSIONS The results of this clinical evaluation support the use of the soluble hCCM produced under embryonic-like conditions to accelerate wound healing after laser resurfacing procedures. The utility of the × 10 concentration appears to promote more rapid, scarless wound healing after resurfacing procedures and more normal skin recovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- M P Zimber
- Histogen Inc, 10655 Sorrento Valley Road, San Diego, CA, 92121, USA
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72
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Bahceciler NN, Cobanoglu N. Subcutaneous versus sublingual immunotherapy for allergic rhinitis and/or asthma. Immunotherapy 2012; 3:747-56. [PMID: 21668312 DOI: 10.2217/imt.11.48] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Subcutaneous allergen-specific immunotherapy has long been used in allergic rhinitis and/or asthma and has been recognized to be efficacious. However, owing to the inconvenience of injection and the risk of serious side effects, alternative concepts inspiring the search for effective noninjective routes, namely sublingual administration of allergens, have emerged. Sublingual immunotherapy (SLIT) appears to be associated with a lower incidence of systemic reactions. The clinical efficacy of subcutaneous immunotherapy (SCIT) is well established for both rhinitis and asthma. Meta-analyses relating to its efficacy on asthma and rhinitis are available. SLIT has also been validated in this respect. Comparative clinical studies of SLIT versus SCIT are scarce demonstrating both routes to be clinically efficient. Knowledge of the exact mechanism of action of SLIT has been increasing in the last decade. In addition, recent studies have proved similarities of the immunological changes with the treatment of both routes. Further comparative clinical and immunological studies of SLIT versus SCIT are needed to confirm the long-term efficacy and to complete the knowledge of immunological mechanisms of both routes. Moreover, better understanding of the interaction of allergen and oral mucosal dendritic cells during SLIT may allow improved targeting of SLIT vaccines.
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73
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Clinical, cellular, and molecular aspects in the pathophysiology of rosacea. J Investig Dermatol Symp Proc 2012; 15:2-11. [PMID: 22076321 DOI: 10.1038/jidsymp.2011.7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 189] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Rosacea is a chronic inflammatory skin disease of unknown etiology. Although described centuries ago, the pathophysiology of this disease is still poorly understood. Epidemiological studies indicate a genetic component, but a rosacea gene has not been identified yet. Four subtypes and several variants of rosacea have been described. It is still unclear whether these subtypes represent a "developmental march" of different stages or are merely part of a syndrome that develops independently but overlaps clinically. Clinical and histopathological characteristics of rosacea make it a fascinating "human disease model" for learning about the connection between the cutaneous vascular, nervous, and immune systems. Innate immune mechanisms and dysregulation of the neurovascular system are involved in rosacea initiation and perpetuation, although the complex network of primary induction and secondary reaction of neuroimmune communication is still unclear. Later, rosacea may result in fibrotic facial changes, suggesting a strong connection between chronic inflammatory processes and skin fibrosis development. This review highlights recent molecular (gene array) and cellular findings and aims to integrate the different body defense mechanisms into a modern concept of rosacea pathophysiology.
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74
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Germscheid NM, Thornton GM, Hart DA, Hildebrand KA. Wound healing differences between Yorkshire and red Duroc porcine medial collateral ligaments identified by biomechanical assessment of scars. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon) 2012; 27:91-8. [PMID: 21794964 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinbiomech.2011.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2010] [Revised: 06/29/2011] [Accepted: 07/01/2011] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Currently, there are no large animal models to assess potential genetic contributions to ligament biomechanics during an injury repair response. Yorkshire and red Duroc pigs display phenotypically and genetically different skin wound healing responses; red Duroc skin scars were hyper-contracted and hyper-pigmented, whereas Yorkshire skin scars were not. Such findings raise the question whether connective tissues of synovial joints display a similar differential healing response in these pig breeds. This study assessed medial collateral ligament healing in Yorkshire and red Duroc pigs at the functional (biomechanical) level. METHODS Surgical injury was created in the right hind limb medial collateral ligament of Yorkshire and red Duroc pigs. After 10 weeks of healing, low-load (laxity and creep) and high-load (failure) mechanical properties were measured. FINDINGS Large, complete ligament scars formed by 10 weeks post-injury. A differential healing response was observed between the breeds, where red Duroc ligament scars had larger cross-sectional areas, exhibited greater static and total creep responses, failed at greater deformations and strains (P ≤ 0.05), and failed with strong trends for higher loads and lower moduli (P=0.06) than Yorkshire ligament scars. INTERPRETATION The ligament healing response of red Duroc pigs differs from Yorkshire pigs. Previously observed breed differences in dorsal skin wound healing are not restricted to skin. Such findings support a genetic basis for breed differences in response to connective tissue injury. Since this animal model is physiologically comparable to humans, these findings could provide further insight into identification of specific genetic contributions to ligament repair in human populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niccole M Germscheid
- Department of Surgery, McCaig Institute for Bone and Joint Health, Health Research Innovation Centre, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.
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75
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Excessıve fluorıde ıntake alters the MMP-2, TIMP-1 and TGF-β levels of perıodontal soft tıssues: an experımental study ın rabbıts. Clin Oral Investig 2011; 16:1563-70. [DOI: 10.1007/s00784-011-0652-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2010] [Accepted: 11/25/2011] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
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Blanco-Mezquita JT, Hutcheon AEK, Stepp MA, Zieske JD. αVβ6 integrin promotes corneal wound healing. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2011; 52:8505-13. [PMID: 21960555 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.11-8194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE To appreciate the role of the integrin αvβ6 in corneal wound repair, corneal debridement and keratectomy in β6 knockout (β6(-/-)) mice were examined. METHODS Either a 2-mm debridement or keratectomy was made in 129SVE wild type mice (WT) and β6(-/-) mice and allowed to heal for up to 4 months. The pattern of corneal restoration was studied "in vivo" by slit lamp and in tissue sections by means of both light and electron microscopy. In addition, αvβ6, α6β4, laminin, and fibronectin were evaluated by indirect immunofluorescence microscopy and/or Western blot analysis. RESULTS αvβ6 expression was upregulated in migrating corneal epithelium after a keratectomy. Healing rates were unaffected in debridement wounds, but were significantly slowed in keratectomy wounds. Most dramatically, mice lacking αvβ6 had a severe defect in basement membrane zone (BMZ) regeneration. Levels of laminin were greatly reduced and no BMZ reformation was observed in transmission electron microscopy (TEM). In addition, hemidesmosome reformation was also impaired in the β6(-/-) mice. Analysis of the hemidesmosome component α6β4 indicated that normal amounts of this integrin were synthesized, suggesting that the defect was in reassembly of the hemidesmosomes. Finally, fibronectin persisted in the BMZ for as long as 4 months after keratectomy in the β6(-/-) mice. CONCLUSIONS It is hypothesized that the lack of αvβ6 leads to reduced laminin production during wound repair. This lack of laminin prevents reassembly of the BMZ and mature hemidesmosomes after keratectomy in β6(-/-) mice.
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Gál P, Vasilenko T, Kostelníková M, Jakubčo J, Kováč I, Sabol F, André S, Kaltner H, Gabius HJ, Smetana Jr. K. Open Wound Healing In Vivo: Monitoring Binding and Presence of Adhesion/Growth-Regulatory Galectins in Rat Skin during the Course of Complete Re-Epithelialization. Acta Histochem Cytochem 2011; 44:191-9. [PMID: 22096259 PMCID: PMC3210424 DOI: 10.1267/ahc.11014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2011] [Accepted: 06/20/2011] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Galectins are a family of carbohydrate-binding proteins that modulate inflammation and immunity. This functional versatility prompted us to perform a histochemical study of their occurrence during wound healing using rat skin as an in vivo model. Wound healing is a dynamic process that exhibits three basic phases: inflammation, proliferation, and maturation. In this study antibodies against keratins-10 and -14, wide-spectrum cytokeratin, vimentin, and fibronectin, and non-cross-reactive antibodies to galectins-1, -2, and -3 were applied to frozen sections of skin specimens two days (inflammatory phase), seven days (proliferation phase), and twenty-one days (maturation phase) after wounding. The presence of binding sites for galectins-1, -2, -3, and -7 as a measure for assessing changes in reactivity was determined using labeled proteins as probes. Our study detected a series of alterations in galectin parameters during the different phases of wound healing. Presence of galectin-1, for example, increased during the early phase of healing, whereas galectin-3 rapidly decreased in newly formed granulation tissue. In addition, nuclear reactivity of epidermal cells for galectin-2 occurred seven days post-trauma. The dynamic regulation of galectins during re-epithelialization intimates a role of these proteins in skin wound healing, most notably for galectin-1 increasing during the early phases and galectin-3 then slightly increasing during later phases of healing. Such changes may identify a potential target for the development of novel drugs to aid in wound repair and patients’ care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Gál
- Department for Biomedical Research, East-Slovak Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases
- Institute of Anatomy, 1st Faculty of Medicine, Charles University
- Department of Pathological Anatomy, University of Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy
| | - Tomáš Vasilenko
- Department of Pathological Anatomy, University of Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy
- 3rd Department of Surgery, Slovak Health University and Košice-Šaca Hospital
| | - Martina Kostelníková
- Department for Biomedical Research, East-Slovak Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases
| | - Ján Jakubčo
- Department for Biomedical Research, East-Slovak Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases
| | - Ivan Kováč
- Department for Biomedical Research, East-Slovak Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases
| | - František Sabol
- Department of Heart Surgery, East-Slovak Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases
| | - Sabine André
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ludwig-Maximillians-University
| | - Herbert Kaltner
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ludwig-Maximillians-University
| | - Hans-Joachim Gabius
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ludwig-Maximillians-University
| | - Karel Smetana Jr.
- Institute of Anatomy, 1st Faculty of Medicine, Charles University
- Center for Cell Therapy and Tissue Repair, 2nd Faculty of Medicine, Charles University
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Ebisawa K, Kato R, Okada M, Sugimura T, Latif MA, Hori Y, Narita Y, Ueda M, Honda H, Kagami H. Gingival and dermal fibroblasts: their similarities and differences revealed from gene expression. J Biosci Bioeng 2011; 111:255-8. [PMID: 21288768 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiosc.2010.11.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2010] [Revised: 11/13/2010] [Accepted: 11/18/2010] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Gene expression profiles in normal human gingival and dermal fibroblasts were investigated using DNA microarrays. Their fundamental characteristics were almost identical, but 5% of their genes were uniquely expressed. These results help us to choose an optimal cell source for effective fibroblast-based cell therapy that is dependent on differential gene expression profiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katsumi Ebisawa
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, 65 Tsuruma-cho, Showa-ku, Nagoya 466-8550, Japan
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Gallant-Behm CL, Du P, Lin SM, Marucha PT, DiPietro LA, Mustoe TA. Epithelial regulation of mesenchymal tissue behavior. J Invest Dermatol 2011; 131:892-9. [PMID: 21228814 DOI: 10.1038/jid.2010.420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Fibroproliferative scars are an important clinical problem, and yet the mechanisms that regulate scar formation remain poorly understood. This study explored the hypothesis that the epithelium has a critical role in dictating scar formation, and that these interactions differ in skin and mucosa. Paired skin and vaginal mucosal wounds on New Zealand white (NZW) rabbits diverged significantly; the cutaneous epithelium exhibited a greater and prolonged response to injury when compared with the mucosa. Microarray analysis of the injured epithelium was performed, and numerous factors were identified that were more strongly upregulated in skin, including several proinflammatory cytokines and profibrotic growth factors. Analysis of the underlying mesenchymal tissue demonstrated a fibrotic response in the dermis of the skin but not the mucosal lamina propria, in the absence of a connective tissue injury. To determine if the proinflammatory factors produced by the epidermis may have a role in dermal fibrosis, an IL-1 receptor antagonist was administered locally to healing skin wounds. In the NZW rabbit model, blockade of IL-1 signaling was effective in preventing hypertrophic scar formation. These results support the idea that soluble factors produced by the epithelium in response to injury may influence fibroblast behavior and regulate scar formation in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corrie L Gallant-Behm
- Department of Surgery, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611, USA
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Abstract
Fetal wound healing occurs rapidly and without scar formation early in gestation. Studying the mechanisms of scarless repair can lead to novel scar-preventive approaches. In fetal wounds, collagen is deposited early and is fine and reticular with less cross-linking. Several important differences of fetal vs. postgestational wound-healing response have been determined, such as the presence of less inflammation, higher hyaluronic acid concentration and a greater ratio of collagen type III to type I. Compared with typical wounds, there are also altered ratios of signaling molecules, such as higher ratios of transforming growth factor (TGF)-β3 to TGF-β1 and -β2, and matrix metalloproteinases to tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases. Furthermore, fetal fibroblasts do not exhibit TGF-β1-induced collagen production compared with their mature counterparts. Patterning genes (homeobox genes) involved in organogenesis are more active in the fetal period and are believed to be the "first domino" in the fetal cutaneous wound repair regulatory cascade. The recommended scar-preventive agents, such as Scarguard MD®, silicone gel and sheet, Seprafilm® Bioresorbable Membrane, topical hyaluronan, onion extract, oral tamoxifen and 585-nm pulsed dye laser are reviewed in this study. Despite the lack of supporting evidence, there is a widespread false presumption that the acceleration of healing with the widely assumed scar-preventive commercial agents is associated with decreased scar formation. Humans are erroneously inclined to make a negative correlation between the healing rate and the degree of scar formation, while such a correlation does not exist in reality. Despite the importance of scar prevention, no FDA-approved therapy for this purpose is available in the 21st century, which reflects the important challenges, such as the presence of redundant pathways, that these approaches are facing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Reza Namazi
- Stem Cell and Transgenic Technology Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
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81
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Chang Z, Ling C, Yamashita M, Welham NV. Microarray-driven validation of reference genes for quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction in a rat vocal fold model of mucosal injury. Anal Biochem 2010; 406:214-21. [PMID: 20670610 DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2010.07.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2010] [Revised: 07/20/2010] [Accepted: 07/20/2010] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Relative quantification by normalization against a stably expressed reference gene is a widely used data analysis method in microarray and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) platforms; however, recent evidence suggests that many commonly utilized reference genes are unstable in certain experimental systems and situations. The primary aim of this study, therefore, was to screen and identify stably expressed reference genes in a well-established rat model of vocal fold mucosal injury. We selected and evaluated the expression stability of nine candidate reference genes. Ablim1, Sptbn1, and Wrnip1 were identified as stably expressed in a model-specific microarray dataset and were further validated as suitable reference genes in an independent qRT-PCR experiment using 2(-DeltaCT) and pairwise comparison-based (geNorm) analyses. Parallel analysis of six commonly used reference genes identified Sdha as the only stably expressed candidate in this group. Sdha, Sptbn1, and the geometric mean of Sdha and Sptbn1 each provided accurate normalization of target gene Tgfb1; Gapdh, the least stable candidate gene in our dataset, provided inaccurate normalization and an invalid experimental result. The stable reference genes identified here are suitable for accurate normalization of target gene expression in vocal fold mucosal injury experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhen Chang
- Division of Otolaryngology, Department of Surgery, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI, USA
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW A recent meta-analysis confirmed that sublingual immunotherapy represents a safe and efficient alternative to traditional subcutaneous immunotherapy in the treatment of allergic rhinitis. However, the immunological mechanisms have not been elucidated in detail yet. The current concept postulates a Th2/Th1 shift along with tolerance induction. Without doubt, oral mucosal antigen-presenting cells such as dendritic cells play a central role as they process antigens to initialize and modulate T-cell activation. RECENT FINDINGS Oral mucosal dendritic cells (oDCs) are capable of processing antigen applied on mucosal surfaces. The natural pro-tolerogenic character of oDCs has been demonstrated by the induction of tolerogenic T cells in response to oDCs activated by either externally applied antigens such as ovalbumin or antigens originating from commensal bacteria like Toll-like receptor ligands, which have been shown to be promising candidates for adjuvants. Nevertheless, the finding of relatively low numbers of oDCs within the sublingual region opens the search for different allergen application sites within the oral cavity such as the vestibular region where higher numbers of oDCs are detectable. SUMMARY oDCs display a natural pro-tolerogenic character, which is suspected to be essential for successful sublingual immunotherapy. Further knowledge about oDCs behaviour might give rise to new sublingual immunotherapy strategies such as adjuvant supplementation.
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