Lectin-dependent enhancement of Ebola virus infection via soluble and transmembrane C-type lectin receptors

Emerging intracellular receptors for hemorrhagic fever viruses

Ebola virus and Lassa virus belong to different virus families that can cause viral hemorrhagic fever, a life-threatening disease in humans with limited treatment options. To infect a target cell, Ebola and Lassa viruses engage receptors at the cell surface and are subsequently shuttled into the endosomal compartment. Upon arrival in late endosomes/lysosomes, the viruses trigger membrane fusion to release their genome into the cytoplasm. Although contact sites at the cell surface were recognized for Ebola virus and Lassa virus, it was postulated that Ebola virus requires a critical receptor inside the cell. Recent screens for host factors identified such internal receptors for both viruses: Niemann-Pick disease type C1 protein (NPC1) for Ebola virus and lysosome-associated membrane protein 1 (LAMP1) for Lassa virus. A cellular trigger is needed to permit binding of the viral envelope protein to these intracellular receptors. This 'receptor switch' represents a previously unnoticed step in virus entry with implications for host-pathogen interactions and viral tropism.

[Haemostasis dysregulation in filovirus infections]

Filoviruses are responsible for highly lethal infections. Those viruses are found in intertropical areas of Africa and Asia where they circulate in their supposed natural reservoir, fruit bats. During filovirus outbreaks and depending on the strains, various modifications in hemostasis have been observed in patients. The disseminated intravascular coagulation identified in these infections is multicausal and involves both viral factors and abnormal physiological responses. In this review we will describe the mechanisms responsible for these disturbances and we will highlight some aspects of the basis of filovirus high pathogenicity.

Human lectins and their roles in viral infections

Innate recognition of virus proteins is an important component of the immune response to viral pathogens. A component of this immune recognition is the family of lectins; pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) that recognise viral pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) including viral glycoproteins. In this review we discuss the contribution of soluble and membrane-associated PRRs to immunity against virus pathogens, and the potential role of these molecules in facilitating virus replication. These processes are illustrated with examples of viruses including human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis C virus (HCV) and Ebola virus (EBOV). We focus on the structure, function and genetics of the well-characterised C-type lectin mannose-binding lectin, the ficolins, and the membrane-bound CD209 proteins expressed on dendritic cells. The potential for lectin-based antiviral therapies is also discussed.

Shed GP of Ebola virus triggers immune activation and increased vascular permeability

During Ebola virus (EBOV) infection a significant amount of surface glycoprotein GP is shed from infected cells in a soluble form due to cleavage by cellular metalloprotease TACE. Shed GP and non-structural secreted glycoprotein sGP, both expressed from the same GP gene, have been detected in the blood of human patients and experimentally infected animals. In this study we demonstrate that shed GP could play a particular role during EBOV infection. In effect it binds and activates non-infected dendritic cells and macrophages inducing the secretion of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines (TNFα, IL1β, IL6, IL8, IL12p40, and IL1-RA, IL10). Activation of these cells by shed GP correlates with the increase in surface expression of co-stimulatory molecules CD40, CD80, CD83 and CD86. Contrary to shed GP, secreted sGP activates neither DC nor macrophages while it could bind DCs. In this study, we show that shed GP activity is likely mediated through cellular toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and is dependent on GP glycosylation. Treatment of cells with anti-TLR4 antibody completely abolishes shed GP-induced activation of cells. We also demonstrate that shed GP activity is negated upon addition of mannose-binding sera lectin MBL, a molecule known to interact with sugar arrays present on the surface of different microorganisms. Furthermore, we highlight the ability of shed GP to affect endothelial cell function both directly and indirectly, demonstrating the interplay between shed GP, systemic cytokine release and increased vascular permeability. In conclusion, shed GP released from virus-infected cells could activate non-infected DCs and macrophages causing the massive release of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines and effect vascular permeability. These activities could be at the heart of the excessive and dysregulated inflammatory host reactions to infection and thus contribute to high virus pathogenicity.

Ebola virus, a member of the Filoviridae family, causes lethal hemorrhagic fever in man and primates, displaying up to 90% mortality rates. Viral infection is typified by an excessive systemic inflammatory response resembling septic shock. It also damages endothelial cells and creates difficulty in coagulation, ultimately leading to haemorrhaging, organ failure and death. A unique feature of EBOV is that following infection high amounts of truncated surface GP, named shed GP, are released from infected cells and are detected in the blood of patients and experimentally infected animals. However the role of shed GP in virus replication and pathogenicity is not yet clearly defined. Here we show that shed GP released from virus-infected cells binds and activates non-infected DCs and macrophages causing the massive release of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines and also affects vascular permeability. These activities could be at the heart of the excessive and dysregulated inflammatory host reactions to infection and thus contribute to high virus pathogenicity.

Bitter-sweet symphony: glycan-lectin interactions in virus biology

Glycans are carbohydrate modifications typically found on proteins or lipids, and can act as ligands for glycan-binding proteins called lectins. Glycans and lectins play crucial roles in the function of cells and organs, and in the immune system of animals and humans. Viral pathogens use glycans and lectins that are encoded by their own or the host genome for their replication and spread. Recent advances in glycobiological research indicate that glycans and lectins mediate key interactions at the virus-host interface, controlling viral spread and/or activation of the immune system. This review reflects on glycan-lectin interactions in the context of viral infection and antiviral immunity. A short introduction illustrates the nature of glycans and lectins, and conveys the basic principles of their interactions. Subsequently, examples are discussed highlighting specific glycan-lectin interactions and how they affect the progress of viral infections, either benefiting the host or the virus. Moreover, glycan and lectin variability and their potential biological consequences are discussed. Finally, the review outlines how recent advances in the glycan-lectin field might be transformed into promising new approaches to antiviral therapy.

The lectin pathway of complement: advantage or disadvantage in HIV pathogenesis?

The pattern recognition molecules of the lectin complement pathway are important components of the innate immune system with known functions in host-virus interactions. This paper summarizes current knowledge of how these intriguing molecules, including mannose-binding lectin (MBL), Ficolin-1, -2 and -3, and collectin-11 (CL-11) may influence HIV-pathogenesis. It has been demonstrated that MBL is capable of binding and neutralizing HIV and may affect host susceptibility to HIV infection and disease progression. In addition, MBL may cause variations in the host immune response against HIV. Ficolin-1, -2 and -3 and CL-11 could have similar functions in HIV infection as the ficolins have been shown to play a role in other viral infections, and CL-11 resembles MBL and the ficolins in structure and binding capacity.

Emerging micro- and nanotechnology based synthetic approaches for insulin delivery

Insulin is essential for type 1 and advanced type 2 diabetics to maintain blood glucose levels and prolong lives. The traditional administration requires frequent subcutaneous insulin injections that are associated with poor patient compliance, including pain, local tissue necrosis, infection, and nerve damage. Taking advantage of emerging micro- and nanotechnologies, numerous alternative strategies integrated with chemical approaches for insulin delivery have been investigated. This review outlines recent developments in the controlled delivery of insulin, including oral, nasal, pulmonary, transdermal, subcutaneous and closed-loop insulin delivery. Perspectives from new materials, formulations and devices at the micro- or nano-scales are specifically surveyed. Advantages and limitations of current delivery methods, as well as future opportunities and challenges are also discussed.