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Quijada P, Misra A, Velasquez LS, Burke RM, Lighthouse JK, Mickelsen DM, Dirkx RA, Small EM. Pre-existing fibroblasts of epicardial origin are the primary source of pathological fibrosis in cardiac ischemia and aging. J Mol Cell Cardiol 2019; 129:92-104. [PMID: 30771308 DOI: 10.1016/j.yjmcc.2019.01.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2018] [Revised: 01/17/2019] [Accepted: 01/17/2019] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Serum response factor (SRF) and the SRF co-activators myocardin-related transcription factors (MRTFs) are essential for epicardium-derived progenitor cell (EPDC)-mobilization during heart development; however, the impact of developmental EPDC deficiencies on adult cardiac physiology has not been evaluated. Here, we utilize the Wilms Tumor-1 (Wt1)-Cre to delete Mrtfs or Srf in the epicardium, which reduced the number of EPDCs in the adult cardiac interstitium. Deficiencies in Wt1-lineage EPDCs prevented the development of cardiac fibrosis and diastolic dysfunction in aged mice. Mice lacking MRTF or SRF in EPDCs also displayed preservation of cardiac function following myocardial infarction partially due to the depletion of Wt1 lineage-derived cells in the infarct. Interestingly, depletion of Wt1-lineage EPDCs allows for the population of the infarct with a Wt1-negative cell lineage with a reduced fibrotic profile. Taken together, our study conclusively demonstrates the contribution of EPDCs to both ischemic cardiac remodeling and the development of diastolic dysfunction in old age, and reveals the existence of an alternative Wt1-negative source of resident fibroblasts that can populate the infarct.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pearl Quijada
- Aab Cardiovascular Research Institute, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
| | - Adwiteeya Misra
- Aab Cardiovascular Research Institute, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, NY 14642, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
| | - Lissette S Velasquez
- Aab Cardiovascular Research Institute, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
| | - Ryan M Burke
- Aab Cardiovascular Research Institute, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
| | - Janet K Lighthouse
- Aab Cardiovascular Research Institute, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
| | - Deanne M Mickelsen
- Aab Cardiovascular Research Institute, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
| | - Ronald A Dirkx
- Aab Cardiovascular Research Institute, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
| | - Eric M Small
- Aab Cardiovascular Research Institute, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, NY 14642, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, NY 14642, USA; Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, NY 14642, USA; Department of Medicine, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, NY 14642, USA.
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52
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Walraven M, Hinz B. Therapeutic approaches to control tissue repair and fibrosis: Extracellular matrix as a game changer. Matrix Biol 2018; 71-72:205-224. [DOI: 10.1016/j.matbio.2018.02.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2017] [Revised: 02/22/2018] [Accepted: 02/23/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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53
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Major LG, Choi YS. Developing a high-throughput platform to direct adipogenic and osteogenic differentiation in adipose-derived stem cells. J Tissue Eng Regen Med 2018; 12:2021-2028. [PMID: 30053766 DOI: 10.1002/term.2736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2017] [Revised: 06/05/2018] [Accepted: 07/13/2018] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
The popular reductionist approach towards stem cell differentiation has identified an array of factors that can induce lineage-specific differentiation. Whether these variables direct differentiation in a multivariable setting in the same way as a single-variable setting is a question of interest. Polyacrylamide hydrogels of specific stiffness were microcontact printed with fibronectin in specific shapes and sizes to construct 54 different extracellular matrix types of defined stiffness, shape, and area. Three media types were also used to investigate the effect of both biomechanical and biochemical inducers of differentiation on adipose-derived stem cells. Stiffness was found to be a significant regulator of both adipogenic (3 kPa) and osteogenic (35 kPa) differentiation across all conditions. Biochemically induced osteogenic differentiation occurred as well as increased osteogenesis on larger extracellular matrix areas (above 5,000 μm2 ). The absence of clear trends for all variables demonstrates the atypical expression patterns that arise when variables that may work competitively or synergistically are considered together in a single, high-throughput system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luke G Major
- School of Human Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Yu Suk Choi
- School of Human Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
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54
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Yuan Y, Li M, To CH, Lam TC, Wang P, Yu Y, Chen Q, Hu X, Ke B. The Role of the RhoA/ROCK Signaling Pathway in Mechanical Strain-Induced Scleral Myofibroblast Differentiation. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018; 59:3619-3629. [PMID: 30029249 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.17-23580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ying Yuan
- Department of Ophthalmology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Fundus Disease, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Engineering Center for Visual Science and Photomedicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Min Li
- Department of Ophthalmology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Chi Ho To
- Laboratory of Experimental Optometry, Centre for Myopia Research, School of Optometry, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of China, China
| | - Thomas Chuen Lam
- Laboratory of Experimental Optometry, Centre for Myopia Research, School of Optometry, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of China, China
| | - Peng Wang
- Department of Ophthalmology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Fundus Disease, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Engineering Center for Visual Science and Photomedicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Yunjie Yu
- Department of Ophthalmology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Fundus Disease, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Engineering Center for Visual Science and Photomedicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Qingzhong Chen
- Department of Ophthalmology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaojun Hu
- Department of Ophthalmology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Bilian Ke
- Department of Ophthalmology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Fundus Disease, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Engineering Center for Visual Science and Photomedicine, Shanghai, China
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55
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Meng C, He Y, Wei Z, Lu Y, Du F, Ou G, Wang N, Luo XG, Ma W, Zhang TC, He H. MRTF-A mediates the activation of COL1A1 expression stimulated by multiple signaling pathways in human breast cancer cells. Biomed Pharmacother 2018; 104:718-728. [PMID: 29807221 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2018.05.092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2018] [Revised: 05/19/2018] [Accepted: 05/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Deposition of type I collage in ECM is an important property of various fibrotic diseases including breast cancer. The excessive expression of type I collagen contributes to the rigidity of cancer tissue and increases the mechanical stresses which facilitate metastasis and proliferation of cancer cells via the activation of TGF-β signaling pathway. The increased mechanical stresses also cause the compression of blood vessels and result in hypoperfusion and impaired drug delivery in cancer tissue. Additionally, type I collage functions as the ligand of α2β1-integrin and DDR1/2 receptors on the membrane of cancer cells to initiate signal transduction leading to metastasis. The expression of type I collage in cancer cells is previously shown to be inducible by TGF-β however the detailed mechanism by which the synthesis of type I collagen is regulated in breast cancer cells remains unclear. Herein, we report that MRTF-A, a co-activator of SRF, is important for the regulation of type I collagen gene COL1A1 in breast cancer cells. MRTF-A physically interacted with the promoter of COL1A1 to facilitate histone acetylation and RNA polymerase II recruitment. The RhoC-ROCK signaling pathway which controls the nuclear localization of MRTF-A regulated the transcription of COL1A1 in human breast cancer cells. TGF-β and Wnt signaling increased the expression of both MRTF-A and COL1A1. Furthermore, depletion of MRTF-A abolished the upregulation of COL1A1 in response to the TGF-β or Wnt signaling, indicating the importance of MRTF-A in the synthesis of type I collagen in breast cancer. Given the crucial roles of type I collagen in the formation of metastasis-prone and hypoperfusion microenvironment, MRTF-A would be a potential target for the development of anti-breast cancer activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Meng
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, Ministry of Education and Tianjin City, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin, 300457, PR China
| | - Yongping He
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, Ministry of Education and Tianjin City, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin, 300457, PR China
| | - Zhaoqiang Wei
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, Ministry of Education and Tianjin City, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin, 300457, PR China
| | - Yulin Lu
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, Ministry of Education and Tianjin City, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin, 300457, PR China
| | - Fu Du
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, Ministry of Education and Tianjin City, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin, 300457, PR China
| | - Guofang Ou
- Chongqing Business Vocational College, Chongqing, 401331, PR China
| | - Nan Wang
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, Ministry of Education and Tianjin City, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin, 300457, PR China
| | - Xue-Gang Luo
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, Ministry of Education and Tianjin City, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin, 300457, PR China
| | - Wenjian Ma
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, Ministry of Education and Tianjin City, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin, 300457, PR China
| | - Tong-Cun Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, Ministry of Education and Tianjin City, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin, 300457, PR China; College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430081, PR China
| | - Hongpeng He
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, Ministry of Education and Tianjin City, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin, 300457, PR China.
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56
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Wermuth PJ, Jimenez SA. Abrogation of transforming growth factor-β-induced tissue fibrosis in TBRIcaCol1a2Cre transgenic mice by the second generation tyrosine kinase inhibitor SKI-606 (Bosutinib). PLoS One 2018; 13:e0196559. [PMID: 29718973 PMCID: PMC5931634 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0196559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2017] [Accepted: 04/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) plays a crucial role in the pathogenesis of Systemic Sclerosis (SSc) and other fibrotic disorders. TGF-β-mediated c-Abl and Src kinase activation induces strong profibrotic cascade signaling. The purpose of this study was to test in vivo the antifibrotic activity of Bosutinib (SKI-606), a second generation c-Abl and Src kinase inhibitor, on TGF-β induced cutaneous and pulmonary fibrosis. For this purpose, we employed the TBRIcaCol1a2Cre transgenic mice expressing an inducible constitutively active TGF-β receptor 1 constitutively activated by Col1a promoter-mediated Cre recombinase. The mice were treated parenterally with 2.5, 5.0 or 10.0 mg/kg/day of Bosutinib for 42 days. Skin and lungs from control and Bosutinib-treated mice (n = 6 per group) were assessed by histopathology, measurement of tissue hydroxyproline content, PCR analysis of tissue fibrosis associated gene expression, and evidence of myofibroblast activation. Mice with constitutive TGF-β-1 signaling displayed severe cutaneous and pulmonary fibrosis. Bosutinib administration decreased collagen deposition and hydroxyproline content in the dermis and lungs in a dose-dependent manner. Bosutinib also reversed the marked increase in profibrotic and myofibroblast activation-associated gene expression. These results demonstrate that constitutive TGF-β-1-signaling-induced cutaneous and pulmonary fibrosis were abrogated in a dose-related manner following parenteral administration of the c-Abl and Src tyrosine kinase inhibitor, Bosutinib. These results indicate that Bosutinib may be a potential therapeutic agent for tissue fibrosis in SSc and other fibroproliferative disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter J Wermuth
- Jefferson Institute of Molecular Medicine and Scleroderma Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, United States of America
| | - Sergio A Jimenez
- Jefferson Institute of Molecular Medicine and Scleroderma Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, United States of America
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57
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Ge J, Burnier L, Adamopoulou M, Kwa MQ, Schaks M, Rottner K, Brakebusch C. RhoA, Rac1, and Cdc42 differentially regulate αSMA and collagen I expression in mesenchymal stem cells. J Biol Chem 2018; 293:9358-9369. [PMID: 29700112 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra117.001113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2017] [Revised: 04/09/2018] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) are suggested to be important progenitors of myofibroblasts in fibrosis. To understand the role of Rho GTPase signaling in TGFβ-induced myofibroblast differentiation of MSC, we generated a novel MSC line and its descendants lacking functional Rho GTPases and Rho GTPase signaling components. Unexpectedly, our data revealed that Rho GTPase signaling is required for TGFβ-induced expression of α-smooth muscle actin (αSMA) but not of collagen I α1 (col1a1). Whereas loss of RhoA and Cdc42 reduced αSMA expression, ablation of the Rac1 gene had the opposite effect. Although actin polymerization and MRTFa were crucial for TGFβ-induced αSMA expression, neither Arp2/3-dependent actin polymerization nor cofilin-dependent severing and depolymerization of F-actin were required. Instead, F-actin levels were dependent on cell contraction, and TGFβ-induced actin polymerization correlated with increased cell contraction mediated by RhoA and Cdc42. Finally, we observed impaired collagen I secretion in MSC lacking RhoA or Cdc42. These data give novel molecular insights into the role of Rho GTPases in TGFβ signaling and have implications for our understanding of MSC function in fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianfeng Ge
- From the Biotech Research and Innovation Center (BRIC), University of Copenhagen, Ole Maaløes vej 5, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Laurent Burnier
- From the Biotech Research and Innovation Center (BRIC), University of Copenhagen, Ole Maaløes vej 5, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Maria Adamopoulou
- From the Biotech Research and Innovation Center (BRIC), University of Copenhagen, Ole Maaløes vej 5, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Mei Qi Kwa
- From the Biotech Research and Innovation Center (BRIC), University of Copenhagen, Ole Maaløes vej 5, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Matthias Schaks
- the Zoological Institute, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Spielmannstrasse 8, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany, and.,the Department of Cell Biology, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Inhoffenstrasse 7, 38124 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Klemens Rottner
- the Zoological Institute, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Spielmannstrasse 8, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany, and.,the Department of Cell Biology, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Inhoffenstrasse 7, 38124 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Cord Brakebusch
- From the Biotech Research and Innovation Center (BRIC), University of Copenhagen, Ole Maaløes vej 5, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark,
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58
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Organ fibrosis is a lethal component of scleroderma. The hallmark of scleroderma fibrosis is extensive extracellular matrix (ECM) deposition by activated myofibroblasts, specialized hyper-contractile cells that promote ECM remodeling and matrix stiffening. The purpose of this review is to discuss novel mechanistic insight into myofibroblast activation in scleroderma. RECENT FINDINGS Matrix stiffness, traditionally viewed as an end point of organ fibrosis, is now recognized as a critical regulator of tissue fibrogenesis that hijacks the normal physiologic wound-healing program to promote organ fibrosis. Here, we discuss how matrix stiffness orchestrates fibrosis by controlling three fundamental pro-fibrotic mechanisms: (a) mechanoactivation of myofibroblasts, (b) integrin-mediated latent transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-β1) activation, and (c) activation of non-canonical TGF-β1 signaling pathways. We also summarize novel therapeutic targets for anti-fibrotic therapy based on the mechanobiology of scleroderma. Future research on mechanobiology of scleroderma may lead to important clinical applications such as improved diagnosis and treatment of patients with scleroderma and other fibrotic-related diseases.
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59
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Tschumperlin DJ, Ligresti G, Hilscher MB, Shah VH. Mechanosensing and fibrosis. J Clin Invest 2018; 128:74-84. [PMID: 29293092 DOI: 10.1172/jci93561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 179] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Tissue injury disrupts the mechanical homeostasis that underlies normal tissue architecture and function. The failure to resolve injury and restore homeostasis gives rise to progressive fibrosis that is accompanied by persistent alterations in the mechanical environment as a consequence of pathological matrix deposition and stiffening. This Review focuses on our rapidly growing understanding of the molecular mechanisms linking the altered mechanical environment in injury, repair, and fibrosis to cellular activation. In particular, our focus is on the mechanisms by which cells transduce mechanical signals, leading to transcriptional and epigenetic responses that underlie both transient and persistent alterations in cell state that contribute to fibrosis. Translation of these mechanobiological insights may enable new approaches to promote tissue repair and arrest or reverse fibrotic tissue remodeling.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Moira B Hilscher
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
| | - Vijay H Shah
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
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60
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King J, Abraham D, Stratton R. Chemokines in systemic sclerosis. Immunol Lett 2017; 195:68-75. [PMID: 29247681 DOI: 10.1016/j.imlet.2017.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2017] [Revised: 12/08/2017] [Accepted: 12/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jamie King
- Centre for Rheumatology and Connective Tissue Diseases, Royal Free Hospital, UCL, NW3 2QG, United Kingdom
| | - David Abraham
- Centre for Rheumatology and Connective Tissue Diseases, Royal Free Hospital, UCL, NW3 2QG, United Kingdom
| | - Richard Stratton
- Centre for Rheumatology and Connective Tissue Diseases, Royal Free Hospital, UCL, NW3 2QG, United Kingdom.
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61
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Gasparics Á, Sebe A. MRTFs- master regulators of EMT. Dev Dyn 2017; 247:396-404. [PMID: 28681541 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.24544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2017] [Revised: 06/20/2017] [Accepted: 06/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent evidence implicates the myocardin-related transcription factors (MRTFs) as key mediators of the phenotypic plasticity leading to the conversion of various cell types into myofibroblasts. This review highlights the function of MRTFs during development, fibrosis and cancer, and the role of MRTFs during epithelial-mesenchymal transitions (EMTs) underlying these processes. EMT is a sequentially orchestrated process where cells undergo a rearrangement of their cell contacts and activate a fibrogenic and myogenic expression program. MRTFs interact with and regulate the major signaling pathways and the expression of key markers and transcription factors involved in EMT. These functions indicate a central role for MRTFs in controlling the process of EMT. Developmental Dynamics 247:396-404, 2018. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ákos Gasparics
- Semmelweis University, Department of Pathophysiology, Budapest, Hungary.,Semmelweis University, 1st Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Attila Sebe
- Semmelweis University, Department of Pathophysiology, Budapest, Hungary.,Paul Ehrlich Institute, Division of Medical Biotechnology, Langen, Germany
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62
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Sharma V, Dogra N, Saikia UN, Khullar M. Transcriptional regulation of endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition in cardiac fibrosis: role of myocardin-related transcription factor A and activating transcription factor 3. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 2017; 95:1263-1270. [PMID: 28686848 DOI: 10.1139/cjpp-2016-0634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
The etiology of cardiac fibrogenesis is quite diverse, but a common feature is the presence of activated fibroblasts. Experimental evidence suggests that a subset of cardiac fibroblasts is derived via transition of vascular endothelial cells into fibroblasts by endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EndMT). During EndMT, endothelial cells lose their endothelial characteristics and acquire a mesenchymal phenotype. Molecular mechanisms and the transcriptional mediators controlling EndMT in heart during development or disease remain relatively undefined. Myocardin-related transcription factor A facilitates the transcription of cytoskeletal genes by serum response factor during fibrosis; therefore, its specific role in cardiac EndMT might be of importance. Activation of activating transcription factor 3 (ATF-3) during cardiac EndMT is speculative, since ATF-3 responds to a transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) stimulus and controls the expression of the primary epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition markers Snail, Slug, and Twist. Although the role of TGF-β in EndMT-mediated cardiac fibrosis has been established, targeting of the TGF-β ligand has not proven to be a viable anti-fibrotic strategy owing to the broad functional importance of this ligand. Thus, targeting of downstream transcriptional mediators may be a useful therapeutic approach in attenuating cardiac fibrosis. Here, we discuss some of the transcription factors that may regulate EndMT-mediated cardiac fibrosis and their involvement in type 2 diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vibhuti Sharma
- a Department of Histopathology, Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh 160 012, India
| | - Nilambra Dogra
- b Department of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology, Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh 160 012, India
| | - Uma Nahar Saikia
- a Department of Histopathology, Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh 160 012, India
| | - Madhu Khullar
- b Department of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology, Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh 160 012, India
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63
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Stem cell migration and mechanotransduction on linear stiffness gradient hydrogels. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2017; 114:5647-5652. [PMID: 28507138 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1618239114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 289] [Impact Index Per Article: 41.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The spatial presentation of mechanical information is a key parameter for cell behavior. We have developed a method of polymerization control in which the differential diffusion distance of unreacted cross-linker and monomer into a prepolymerized hydrogel sink results in a tunable stiffness gradient at the cell-matrix interface. This simple, low-cost, robust method was used to produce polyacrylamide hydrogels with stiffness gradients of 0.5, 1.7, 2.9, 4.5, 6.8, and 8.2 kPa/mm, spanning the in vivo physiological and pathological mechanical landscape. Importantly, three of these gradients were found to be nondurotactic for human adipose-derived stem cells (hASCs), allowing the presentation of a continuous range of stiffnesses in a single well without the confounding effect of differential cell migration. Using these nondurotactic gradient gels, stiffness-dependent hASC morphology, migration, and differentiation were studied. Finally, the mechanosensitive proteins YAP, Lamin A/C, Lamin B, MRTF-A, and MRTF-B were analyzed on these gradients, providing higher-resolution data on stiffness-dependent expression and localization.
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64
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Hutchings KM, Lisabeth EM, Rajeswaran W, Wilson MW, Sorenson RJ, Campbell PL, Ruth JH, Amin A, Tsou PS, Leipprandt JR, Olson SR, Wen B, Zhao T, Sun D, Khanna D, Fox DA, Neubig RR, Larsen SD. Pharmacokinetic optimitzation of CCG-203971: Novel inhibitors of the Rho/MRTF/SRF transcriptional pathway as potential antifibrotic therapeutics for systemic scleroderma. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2017; 27:1744-1749. [PMID: 28285914 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2017.02.070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2017] [Revised: 02/24/2017] [Accepted: 02/26/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
We recently reported the development of a novel inhibitor of Rho-mediated gene transcription (1, CCG-203971) that is efficacious in multiple animal models of acute fibrosis, including scleroderma, when given intraperitoneally. The modest in vivo potency and poor pharmacokinetics (PK) of this lead, however, make it unsuitable for long term efficacy studies. We therefore undertook a systematic medicinal chemistry effort to improve both the metabolic stability and the solubility of 1, resulting in the identification of two analogs achieving over 10-fold increases in plasma exposures in mice. We subsequently showed that one of these analogs (8f, CCG-232601) could inhibit the development of bleomycin-induced dermal fibrosis in mice when administered orally at 50mg/kg, an effect that was comparable to what we had observed earlier with 1 at a 4-fold higher IP dose.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kim M Hutchings
- Vahlteich Medicinal Chemistry Core, College of Pharmacy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Erika M Lisabeth
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
| | - Walajapet Rajeswaran
- Vahlteich Medicinal Chemistry Core, College of Pharmacy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Michael W Wilson
- Vahlteich Medicinal Chemistry Core, College of Pharmacy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Roderick J Sorenson
- Vahlteich Medicinal Chemistry Core, College of Pharmacy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Phillip L Campbell
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Rheumatology and Clinical Autoimmunity Center of Excellence, University of Michigan Medical Center, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Jeffrey H Ruth
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Rheumatology and Clinical Autoimmunity Center of Excellence, University of Michigan Medical Center, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Asif Amin
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Rheumatology and Clinical Autoimmunity Center of Excellence, University of Michigan Medical Center, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Pei-Suen Tsou
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Rheumatology and Clinical Autoimmunity Center of Excellence, University of Michigan Medical Center, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Jeffrey R Leipprandt
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
| | - Samuel R Olson
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
| | - Bo Wen
- UM Pharmacokinetics Core, College of Pharmacy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Ting Zhao
- UM Pharmacokinetics Core, College of Pharmacy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Duxin Sun
- UM Pharmacokinetics Core, College of Pharmacy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Dinesh Khanna
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Rheumatology and Clinical Autoimmunity Center of Excellence, University of Michigan Medical Center, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - David A Fox
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Rheumatology and Clinical Autoimmunity Center of Excellence, University of Michigan Medical Center, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Richard R Neubig
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
| | - Scott D Larsen
- Vahlteich Medicinal Chemistry Core, College of Pharmacy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
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Stempien-Otero A, Kim DH, Davis J. Molecular networks underlying myofibroblast fate and fibrosis. J Mol Cell Cardiol 2016; 97:153-61. [PMID: 27167848 PMCID: PMC5482716 DOI: 10.1016/j.yjmcc.2016.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2016] [Revised: 05/02/2016] [Accepted: 05/05/2016] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Fibrotic remodeling is a hallmark of most forms of cardiovascular disease and a strong prognostic indicator of the advancement towards heart failure. Myofibroblasts, which are a heterogeneous cell-type specialized for extracellular matrix (ECM) secretion and tissue contraction, are the primary effectors of the heart's fibrotic response. This review is focused on defining myofibroblast physiology, its progenitor cell populations, and the core signaling network that orchestrates myofibroblast differentiation as a way of understanding the basic determinants of fibrotic disease in the heart and other tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- April Stempien-Otero
- Division of Cardiology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Deok-Ho Kim
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Jennifer Davis
- Department of Pathology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA; Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA.
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66
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Stone RC, Pastar I, Ojeh N, Chen V, Liu S, Garzon KI, Tomic-Canic M. Epithelial-mesenchymal transition in tissue repair and fibrosis. Cell Tissue Res 2016; 365:495-506. [PMID: 27461257 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-016-2464-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 386] [Impact Index Per Article: 48.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2016] [Accepted: 06/24/2016] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) describes the global process by which stationary epithelial cells undergo phenotypic changes, including the loss of cell-cell adhesion and apical-basal polarity, and acquire mesenchymal characteristics that confer migratory capacity. EMT and its converse, MET (mesenchymal-epithelial transition), are integral stages of many physiologic processes and, as such, are tightly coordinated by a host of molecular regulators. Converging lines of evidence have identified EMT as a component of cutaneous wound healing, during which otherwise stationary keratinocytes (the resident skin epithelial cells) migrate across the wound bed to restore the epidermal barrier. Moreover, EMT plays a role in the development of scarring and fibrosis, as the matrix-producing myofibroblasts arise from cells of the epithelial lineage in response to injury but are pathologically sustained instead of undergoing MET or apoptosis. In this review, we summarize the role of EMT in physiologic repair and pathologic fibrosis of tissues and organs. We conclude that further investigation into the contribution of EMT to the faulty repair of fibrotic wounds might identify components of EMT signaling as common therapeutic targets for impaired healing in many tissues. Graphical Abstract Model for injury-triggered EMT activation in physiologic wound repair (left) and fibrotic wound healing (right).
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Affiliation(s)
- Rivka C Stone
- Wound Healing and Regenerative Medicine Research Program, Department of Dermatology and Cutaneous Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, 1600 NW 10th Avenue, RMSB, Room 2023A, Miami, FL 33136, USA
- The Research Residency Program, Department of Dermatology and Cutaneous Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Fla., USA
| | - Irena Pastar
- Wound Healing and Regenerative Medicine Research Program, Department of Dermatology and Cutaneous Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, 1600 NW 10th Avenue, RMSB, Room 2023A, Miami, FL 33136, USA
| | - Nkemcho Ojeh
- Wound Healing and Regenerative Medicine Research Program, Department of Dermatology and Cutaneous Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, 1600 NW 10th Avenue, RMSB, Room 2023A, Miami, FL 33136, USA
- Faculty of Medical Sciences, The University of the West Indies, Bridgetown, Barbados
| | - Vivien Chen
- Wound Healing and Regenerative Medicine Research Program, Department of Dermatology and Cutaneous Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, 1600 NW 10th Avenue, RMSB, Room 2023A, Miami, FL 33136, USA
| | - Sophia Liu
- Wound Healing and Regenerative Medicine Research Program, Department of Dermatology and Cutaneous Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, 1600 NW 10th Avenue, RMSB, Room 2023A, Miami, FL 33136, USA
| | - Karen I Garzon
- Wound Healing and Regenerative Medicine Research Program, Department of Dermatology and Cutaneous Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, 1600 NW 10th Avenue, RMSB, Room 2023A, Miami, FL 33136, USA
| | - Marjana Tomic-Canic
- Wound Healing and Regenerative Medicine Research Program, Department of Dermatology and Cutaneous Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, 1600 NW 10th Avenue, RMSB, Room 2023A, Miami, FL 33136, USA.
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Tian W, Fan Z, Li J, Hao C, Li M, Xu H, Wu X, Zhou B, Zhang L, Fang M, Xu Y. Myocardin-related transcription factor A (MRTF-A) plays an essential role in hepatic stellate cell activation by epigenetically modulating TGF-β signaling. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2016; 71:35-43. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biocel.2015.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2015] [Revised: 11/28/2015] [Accepted: 12/10/2015] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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Varney SD, Betts CB, Zheng R, Wu L, Hinz B, Zhou J, Van De Water L. Hic-5 is required for myofibroblast differentiation by regulating mechanically dependent MRTF-A nuclear accumulation. J Cell Sci 2016; 129:774-87. [PMID: 26759173 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.170589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2015] [Accepted: 01/04/2016] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
How mechanical cues from the extracellular environment are translated biochemically to modulate the effects of TGF-β on myofibroblast differentiation remains a crucial area of investigation. We report here that the focal adhesion protein, Hic-5 (also known as TGFB1I1), is required for the mechanically dependent generation of stress fibers in response to TGF-β. Successful generation of stress fibers promotes the nuclear localization of the transcriptional co-factor MRTF-A (also known as MKL1), and this correlates with the mechanically dependent induction of α smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) and Hic-5 in response to TGF-β. As a consequence of regulating stress fiber assembly, Hic-5 is required for the nuclear accumulation of MRTF-A and the induction of α-SMA as well as cellular contractility, suggesting a crucial role for Hic-5 in myofibroblast differentiation. Indeed, the expression of Hic-5 was transient in acute wounds and persistent in pathogenic scars, and Hic-5 colocalized with α-SMA expression in vivo. Taken together, these data suggest that a mechanically dependent feed-forward loop, elaborated by the reciprocal regulation of MRTF-A localization by Hic-5 and Hic-5 expression by MRTF-A, plays a crucial role in myofibroblast differentiation in response to TGF-β.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott D Varney
- Center for Cell Biology and Cancer Research (MC-165), Albany Medical College, 47 New Scotland Avenue, Albany, NY 12208, USA
| | - Courtney B Betts
- Center for Cell Biology and Cancer Research (MC-165), Albany Medical College, 47 New Scotland Avenue, Albany, NY 12208, USA
| | - Rui Zheng
- Center for Cell Biology and Cancer Research (MC-165), Albany Medical College, 47 New Scotland Avenue, Albany, NY 12208, USA
| | - Lei Wu
- Center for Cell Biology and Cancer Research (MC-165), Albany Medical College, 47 New Scotland Avenue, Albany, NY 12208, USA
| | - Boris Hinz
- Laboratory of Tissue Repair and Regeneration, Matrix Dynamics Group, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Toronto, 150 College Street, FitzGerald Building, Room 234, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5S 3E2
| | - Jiliang Zhou
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, Medical College of Georgia, Georgia Regents University, CB-3628, 1459 Laney Walker Boulevard, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
| | - Livingston Van De Water
- Center for Cell Biology and Cancer Research (MC-165), Albany Medical College, 47 New Scotland Avenue, Albany, NY 12208, USA
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van Putten S, Shafieyan Y, Hinz B. Mechanical control of cardiac myofibroblasts. J Mol Cell Cardiol 2015; 93:133-42. [PMID: 26620422 DOI: 10.1016/j.yjmcc.2015.11.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 163] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2015] [Revised: 11/20/2015] [Accepted: 11/23/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Fibroblasts produce and turn over collagenous extracellular matrix as part of the normal adaptive response to increased mechanical load in the heart, e.g. during prolonged exercise. However, chronic overload as a consequence of hypertension or myocardial injury trigger a repair program that culminates in the formation of myofibroblasts. Myofibroblasts are opportunistically activated from various precursor cells that all acquire a phenotype promoting excessive collagen secretion and contraction of the neo-matrix into stiff scar tissue. Stiff fibrotic tissue reduces heart distensibility, impedes pumping and valve function, contributes to diastolic and systolic dysfunction, and affects myocardial electrical transmission, potentially leading to arrhythmia and heart failure. Here, we discuss how mechanical factors, such as matrix stiffness and strain, are feeding back and cooperate with cytokine signals to drive myofibroblast activation. We elaborate on the importance of considering the mechanical boundary conditions in the heart to generate better cell culture models for mechanistic studies of cardiac fibroblast function. Elements of the force transmission and mechanoperception apparatus acting in myofibroblasts are presented as potential therapeutic targets to treat fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sander van Putten
- Laboratory of Tissue Repair and Regeneration, Matrix Dynamics Group, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3E2, Canada
| | - Yousef Shafieyan
- Laboratory of Tissue Repair and Regeneration, Matrix Dynamics Group, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3E2, Canada
| | - Boris Hinz
- Laboratory of Tissue Repair and Regeneration, Matrix Dynamics Group, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3E2, Canada.
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Nikitorowicz-Buniak J, Denton CP, Abraham D, Stratton R. Partially Evoked Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT) Is Associated with Increased TGFβ Signaling within Lesional Scleroderma Skin. PLoS One 2015. [PMID: 26217927 PMCID: PMC4517793 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0134092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The origin of myofibroblasts in fibrotic conditions remains unknown and in systemic sclerosis (SSc) it has been proposed that activation of local fibroblasts, trans-differentiation of perivascular or vascular cells, recruitment of fibrocyte progenitors, or epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) could be contributing. Data from our laboratory indicate that the epidermis in scleroderma is activated with the keratinocytes exhibiting a phenotype normally associated with tissue repair, including phosphorylation profiles indicative of TGFβ signaling. Since TGFβ is a known inducer of EMT, we investigated if there is evidence of this process in the SSc epidermis. In order to validate antibodies and primers, EMT was modeled in HaCaT cells cultured in the presence of TGFβ1. Skin sections were stained with phosho-SMAD2/3, as well as with epithelial and mesenchymal markers. Moreover, mRNA levels of transcription factors associated with EMT were studied in epidermal blister sheets. We observed critical changes in the scleroderma epidermis; showing significantly increased nuclear translocation of phosphorylated Smad2/3, consistent with active TGFβ signaling in SSc keratinocytes. While profound EMT could be induced in keratinocytes in vitro with the appearance of SNAI1/2 and FSP-1, and an accompanying loss of E-cadherin, in the scleroderma skin active TGFβ signaling was accompanied by only partial EMT-like changes characterised by induction of SNAI1 alone and with no loss of E-cadherin. Together, our findings support a model of altered differentiation and TGFβ dependent activation of scleroderma epithelial cells leading to a partially evoked EMT like process in the fibrotic skin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Nikitorowicz-Buniak
- Centre for Rheumatology and Connective Tissue Diseases, Research Department of Inflammation, Division of Medicine, UCL-Medical School, Rowland Hill Street, London, NW3 2PF, United Kingdom
| | - Christopher P. Denton
- Centre for Rheumatology and Connective Tissue Diseases, Research Department of Inflammation, Division of Medicine, UCL-Medical School, Rowland Hill Street, London, NW3 2PF, United Kingdom
| | - David Abraham
- Centre for Rheumatology and Connective Tissue Diseases, Research Department of Inflammation, Division of Medicine, UCL-Medical School, Rowland Hill Street, London, NW3 2PF, United Kingdom
| | - Richard Stratton
- Centre for Rheumatology and Connective Tissue Diseases, Research Department of Inflammation, Division of Medicine, UCL-Medical School, Rowland Hill Street, London, NW3 2PF, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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Abstract
Myofibroblasts are activated in response to tissue injury with the primary task to repair lost or damaged extracellular matrix. Enhanced collagen secretion and subsequent contraction - scarring - are part of the normal wound healing response and crucial to restore tissue integrity. Due to myofibroblasts ability to repair but not regenerate, accumulation of scar tissue is always associated with reduced organ performance. This is a fair price to pay by the body for not falling apart. Whereas myofibroblasts typically vanish after successful repair, dysregulation of the normal repair process can lead to persistent myofibroblast activation, for instance by chronic inflammation or mechanical stress in the tissue. Excessive repair leads to the accumulation of stiff collagenous ECM contractures - fibrosis - with dramatic consequences for organ function. The clinical need to terminate detrimental myofibroblast activities has stimulated researchers to answer a number of essential questions: where do myofibroblasts come from, what are the factors leading to their activation, how do we discriminate myofibroblasts from other cells, what is the molecular basis for their contractile activity, and how can we stop or at least control them? This article reviews the current state of the myofibroblast literature by emphasizing their role in ocular repair and fibrosis. It appears that although the eye is quite an extraordinary organ, ocular myofibroblasts behave or misbehave just like their siblings in other organs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boris Hinz
- Laboratory of Tissue Repair and Regeneration, Matrix Dynamics Group, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Toronto, 150 College Street, FitzGerald Building, Room 234, Toronto, M5S 3E2 Ontario, Canada.
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Leask A. Matrix remodeling in systemic sclerosis. Semin Immunopathol 2015; 37:559-63. [PMID: 26141607 DOI: 10.1007/s00281-015-0508-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2015] [Accepted: 06/16/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Systemic sclerosis (SSc, scleroderma) is an often-fatal disease characterized by connective tissue fibrosis of skin and internal organs. In scleroderma, there is an excessive production and accumulation of extracellular matrix (ECM) components resulting from an increase in collagen synthesis and matrix stability. Understanding how this how excessive ECM is produced and remodeled may represent a novel therapeutic approach. In this review, the transcription factors and collagen-modifying enzymes underlying collagen overexpression and enhancing stability in SSc are discussed. Moreover, the role of matrix stiffness in promoting fibrosis via a feed-forward mechanism is discussed. Indeed, the emerging evidence is that enhanced ECM remodeling resulting in increased ECM stiffness may be sufficient in itself to sustain persistence fibrosis in SSc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Leask
- Department of Dentistry, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, N6A 5C1, Canada,
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