Genetic variation of human UDP-glucuronosyltransferase: implications in disease and drug glucuronidation

Nomenclature update for the mammalian UDP glycosyltransferase (UGT) gene superfamily

Several novel UDP glycosyltransferase (UGT) genes, mainly UDP glucuronosyltransferases, have been identified in the human, mouse and rat genomes and in other mammalian species. This review provides an update of the UGT nomenclature to include these new genes and prevent the confusion that arises when the same gene is given different names. The new genes are named following previously established recommendations, taking into consideration evolutionary relatedness and the names already in general usage in the literature. The mammalian UGT gene superfamily currently has 117 members that can be divided into four families, UGT1, UGT2, UGT3 and UGT8. The 5-exon genes of the UGT1 family each contain a unique first exon, plus four exons that are shared between the genes; the exons 1 appear to have evolved by a process of duplication, leading to the synthesis of proteins with identical carboxyl-terminal and variable amino-terminal domains. Exon-sharing is also seen with the 6-exon UGT2A1 and UGT2A2 genes. However, UGT2A3 and those of the UGT2B (six exons), UGT3 (seven exons) and UGT8 gene families (five or six exons) do not share exons and most likely were derived by a process of duplication of all exons in the gene. Most UGT1 and UGT8 enzymes have been characterized in detail; however, the catalytic functions of the UGT3A enzymes and several UGT2 enzymes remain to be characterized.

Pharmacogenetics in drug regulation: promise, potential and pitfalls

Pharmacogenetic factors operate at pharmacokinetic as well as pharmacodynamic levels-the two components of the dose-response curve of a drug. Polymorphisms in drug metabolizing enzymes, transporters and/or pharmacological targets of drugs may profoundly influence the dose-response relationship between individuals. For some drugs, although retrospective data from case studies suggests that these polymorphisms are frequently associated with adverse drug reactions or failure of efficacy, the clinical utility of such data remains unproven. There is, therefore, an urgent need for prospective data to determine whether pre-treatment genotyping can improve therapy. Various regulatory guidelines already recommend exploration of the role of genetic factors when investigating a drug for its pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, dose-response relationship and drug interaction potential. Arising from the global heterogeneity in the frequency of variant alleles, regulatory guidelines also require the sponsors to provide additional information, usually pharmacogenetic bridging data, to determine whether data from one ethnic population can be extrapolated to another. At present, sponsors explore pharmacogenetic influences in early clinical pharmacokinetic studies but rarely do they carry the findings forward when designing dose-response studies or pivotal studies. When appropriate, regulatory authorities include genotype-specific recommendations in the prescribing information. Sometimes, this may include the need to adjust a dose in some genotypes under specific circumstances. Detailed references to pharmacogenetics in prescribing information and pharmacogenetically based prescribing in routine therapeutics will require robust prospective data from well-designed studies. With greater integration of pharmacogenetics in drug development, regulatory authorities expect to receive more detailed genetic data. This is likely to complicate the drug evaluation process as well as result in complex prescribing information. Genotype-specific dosing regimens will have to be more precise and marketing strategies more prudent. However, not all variations in drug responses are related to pharmacogenetic polymorphisms. Drug response can be modulated by a number of non-genetic factors, especially co-medications and presence of concurrent diseases. Inappropriate prescribing frequently compounds the complexity introduced by these two important non-genetic factors. Unless prescribers adhere to the prescribing information, much of the benefits of pharmacogenetics will be squandered. Discovering highly predictive genotype-phenotype associations during drug development and demonstrating their clinical validity and utility in well-designed prospective clinical trials will no doubt better define the role of pharmacogenetics in future clinical practice. In the meantime, prescribing should comply with the information provided while pharmacogenetic research is deservedly supported by all concerned but without unrealistic expectations.

Genetic factors related to unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia amongst adults

Some variations in the UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 1A1 (UGT1A1) gene are involved in the development of unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia. We hypothesize that other genetic factors may also be associated with this disease. A total of 227 adults with normal routine haematology and liver function (apart from bilirubin testing for which they revealed bilirubin > or = 25.7 micromol/l and unconjugated bilirubin/total bilirubin > or = 80%), and 235 sex- and age-matched controls, were recruited. All subjects were analysed for UGT1A1, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) and organic anion transporter polypeptide 2 (OATP2) genotypes using polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism. The results indicated that G6PD deficiency, variant UGT1A1 gene and variant OATP2 gene were risk factors for hyperbilirubinemia. The odds ratios (OR) (with 95% confidence interval) were 220.83 (34.68-1406.30), 73.61 (17.01-318.63), 45.15 (11.19-182.22), 15.46 (4.35-54.99) and 6.51 (1.83-23.09), respectively, for individuals featuring the common UGT1A1/OATP2 haplotypes homozygous/heterozygous, compound heterozygous/heterozygous, compound heterozygous/wild-type, heterozygous/heterozygous and heterozygous/wild-type variations amongst subjects with normal G6PD activity. Amongst the subjects with G6PD deficiency, the OR was 159.00 (24.57-1028.94) for individuals carrying variations in both UGT1A1 and OATP2 genes. The UGT1A1/OATP2 haplotypes homozygous/wild-type, homozygous/compound heterozygous and homozygous/homozygous for G6PD normal and variant/wild-type for G6PD deficient individuals were only observed in the case group, and not in the control group. Amongst hyperbilirubinemic adults, bilirubin values tended to parallel variation status of their haplotypes. Adults featuring certain haplotypes in UGT1A1, OATP2 and G6PD genes face a high risk of developing unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia.

Mechanistic basis of adverse drugreactions: the perils of inappropriate dose schedules

Adverse drug reactions (ADRs) have long been recognised as a significant cause of morbidity and mortality. They account for a substantial number of clinical consultations, hospital admissions and extended duration of in-patient stay as well as mortality. By far the most common ADRs are the concentration-dependent pharmacological reactions, the majority of which ought to be preventable. As a result of high concentrations of the parent drug and/or its metabolite(s), there is an augmentation of primary pharmacological activity and/or appearance of new and undesirable secondary pharmacological activity. Typically, these high concentrations result from administration of high doses in an attempt to maximise efficacy and/or modulation of the pharmacokinetics of a drug by either genetic or non-genetic factors. High plasma concentrations of parent drug may result from inherited impairment or drug-induced inhibition of its pharmacokinetic disposition. Conversely, inherited overcapacity or drug-induced induction of the metabolism of a drug may result in low concentrations of parent drug and frequently, rapid accumulation of its metabolites. Environmental, dietary and phytochemical factors may also influence the activity of drug metabolising enzymes. As with inherited polymorphisms of acetylation and cytochrome P450-based drug metabolising enzymes, polymorphisms of other conjugation reactions, such as glucuronidation, increasingly appear to be associated with drug toxicity. Diseases of organs involved in elimination of a drug also alter its pharmacokinetics, plasma concentration and, therefore, the profile of its concentration-dependent ADRs. Inherited mutations, concurrently administered drugs or presence of certain diseases may also alter the sensitivity of some pharmacological targets, accounting for a substantial number of ADRs and interactions. When there is enhanced pharmacodynamic sensitivity, plasma drug concentrations that are apparently within the normal 'non-toxic' range give rise to ADRs. Recent advances have also provided important insights into the wider scope of drug-drug interactions. Interactions that occur at P-glycoproteins, drug transporters and efflux pumps, at various transmembrane interfaces such as the gastrointestinal wall, renal tubules, hepatobiliary border and blood-brain barrier, are beginning to explain many non-metabolic interactions. These alter the systemic exposure to drugs and have so far, begun to explain unexpected neurotoxicity and hepatotoxicity. The function of these transporters is also genetically modulated. These advances, together with continued increased awareness and education of prescribers and pharmacists, offer great opportunities for substantially minimising concentration-related ADRs.

Interspecies metabolism of heterocyclic aromatic amines and the uncertainties in extrapolation of animal toxicity data for human risk assessment

Heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAAs) are potent bacterial mutagens that are formed in cooked meats, tobacco smokes condensate, and diesel exhaust. Many HAAs are carcinogenic in experimental animal models. Because of their wide-spread occurrence in the diet and environment, HAAs may contribute to some common types of human cancers. The extrapolation of animal toxicity data on HAAs to asses human health risk has many uncertainties, which can lead to tenuous risk assessment estimates. Perhaps the most critical and variable parameters in interspecies extrapolation are the effects of dose, species differences in catalytic activities of xenobiotic metabolism enzymes (XMEs), human XME polymorphisms that lead to interindividual differences in carcinogen metabolism and dietary constituents that may either augment or diminish the carcinogenic potency of these genotoxins. The impact of these parameters on the metabolism and toxicological properties of HAAS and uncertainties in extrapolation of animal toxicity data for human risk assessment are presented in this article.

Influence of genetic variants in UGT1A1 and UGT1A9 on the in vivo glucuronidation of SN-38

The uridine diphosphate glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) 1A1 and 1A9 isoforms are involved in the phase II biotransformation of the irinotecan metabolite, SN-38. Recently, several variants in the UGT1A1 and UGT1A9 genes have been described with altered functionality in vitro. The aim of this study was to evaluate the functional consequence of the UGT1A1(TA)(7)TAA (UGT1A1(*)28), UGT1A9 766G>A (D256N; UGT1A9(*)5), and UGT1A9 98T>C (M33T; UGT1A9(*)3) variants in Caucasian patients treated with irinotecan. Pharmacokinetic studies were performed after the first course of irinotecan in 47 males and 47 females. The mean (SD) area under the curves (AUCs) of irinotecan and SN-38 were 20,348 +/- 6466 ng x h/mL and 629 +/- 370 ng x h/mL, respectively, which is in line with earlier findings. For UGT1A9(*)5,novariant alleles were observed, whereas for UGT1A9(*)3, 1 patient with the variant allele was found (allele frequency, 0.633%). The distribution of the UGT1A1(*)28 variant showed 44 wild-type patients (Wt), 37 heterozygotes (Het), and 5 homozygotes (Var). The median AUC ratio of SN-38G to SN-38 was significantly reduced in carriers of the variant UGT1A1(*)28 allele (7.00 [Wt] vs. 6.26 [Het] vs. 2.51 [Var]; p =.022). It is concluded that UGT1A9 functional variants are rare in Caucasians and likely to be clinically insignificant in irinotecan regimens. Screening for the UGT1A1(*)28 polymorphism may identify patients with altered SN-38 pharmacokinetics.

Identification and Characterization of a Functional TATA Box Polymorphism of the UDP Glucuronosyltransferase 1A7 Gene

UDP glucuronosyltransferases (UGT) detoxify bilirubin and therapeutic drugs, a process influenced by single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in their structural genes and promoter elements. UGT1A1*28 is a functional UGT promoter polymorphism associated with Gilbert's disease and severe irinotecan toxicity, which also occurs in the absence of UGT1A1*28. The aim of this study was to identify and characterize UGT promoter variants relevant for irinotecan detoxification. Recombinant UGT1A proteins were analyzed for irinotecan metabolite glucuronidation by UGT activity assays. In 427 healthy blood donors and 71 homozygous UGT1A1*28 carriers, the 5'-untranslated region of the UGT1A7 gene locus was studied. An SNP was detected by allelic discrimination and characterized by reporter gene experiments. A novel -57 T--> G SNP with a gene frequency of 0.39 in healthy blood donors was identified in the putative TATA box of the UGT1A7 gene, reducing promoter activity to 30%. It is in linkage dysequilibrium with a variant of the UGT1A7 first exon that is present in the reduced-activity UGT1A7*3 and UGT1A7*4 alleles. Homozygous UGT1A1*28 carriers simultaneously carried this variant in 97%. We identified a novel reduced-function TATA box SNP of the UGT1A7 gene that catalyzes irinotecan metabolite detoxification. Its association with variants of the UGT1A1 promoter and UGT1A7 gene may influence irinotecan metabolism. Our finding emphasizes the importance of combinations of structural and regulatory gene polymorphisms that may be useful as markers of drug toxicity.

Genetic aspects of immune-mediated adverse drug effects

Adverse drug effects (ADEs) are of great importance in medicine and account for up to 5% of all hospital admissions. ADEs can arise from several mechanisms and a wide range of drugs can cause immune-mediated ADEs (IMADEs). For a drug to elicit an IMADE, it must be both immunogenic (that is, able to sensitize the immune system) and antigenic (that is, able to evoke a response from a sensitized immune system). Unlike protein therapeutics, small-molecule drugs (or xenobiotics) are usually neither immunogenic nor antigenic. IMADEs are therefore the result of complex interactions between drug-metabolizing enzymes, immune sensitization and immune effectors. The genetic aspects of this interplay are discussed in this review.

Substrate Specificity of Human Hepatic Udp‐Glucuronosyltransferases

Five human hepatic UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs) catalyze the facilitated excretion of more than 90% of drugs eliminated by glucuronidation. The substrate specificity of these UGTs has been examined using cloned expressed enzymes and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry assays to determine the intrinsic clearance of drug glucuronidation in vitro. Specific substrates for the five individual UGTs have been identified. These five probe substrates could be used to predict the drug clearance catalyzed by individual UGTs in vivo.

Glucuronidation of haloperidol by rat liver microsomes: involvement of family 2 UDP-glucuronosyltransferases

The purposes of this study were to develop a HPLC method to assay for haloperidol glucuronide (HALG); to apply this assay method to the in vitro determination of haloperidol (HAL) UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) enzyme kinetics in rat liver microsomes (RLM); and to identify the UGT isoforms catalyzing glucuronidation of HAL in rats. Incubation of Brij-activated RLM with HAL and UDP-glucuronic acid (UDPGA) in TRIS pH 7.4 buffer resulted in the formation of a single peak in the HPLC chromatogram at 270 nm. The identity of this peak was confirmed to be that of HALG by 1) beta-glucuronidase hydrolysis; 2) incubation without UDPGA; 3) UV spectral analysis; and 4) LC/MS/MS to yield the expected mass of 552.1. Enzyme kinetic studies using single enzyme Michaelis-Menton model showed an apparent Vmax = 271.9 +/- 10.1 pmoles min(-1) mg protein(-1) and Km = 61 +/- 7.2 microM. Glucuronidation activity in homozygous Gunn (j/j) rats was approximately 80% as compared to Sprague-Dawley RLM. HALG formation was approximately doubled in PB-induced RLM. There was no increase in glucuronidation activities in 3MC-induced RLM. The Gunn rat and the PB-induced RLM data suggest predominant but not exclusive involvement of the UGT2B family in the formation of HALG. Because the UGTs exhibit overlapping substrate specificities and most substrates are glucuronidated by more than one isoform, inhibition studies with UGT2B1 substrate probe testosterone and the UGT2B12 substrate probe borneol were conducted. UGT2B1 and UGT2B12 exhibited 40% and 90% inhibition of HAL glucuronidation, respectively. Thus, UGT2B12 and UGT 2B1 isoforms are responsible for catalyzing HAL glucuronidation in rats. Our HPLC assay provides a specific and sensitive technique for the measurement of in vitro HAL-UGT activity.

Variation of hepatic glucuronidation: Novel functional polymorphisms of the UDP-glucuronosyltransferase UGT1A4

UDP-glucuronosyltransferases are a family of drug metabolizing enzymes contributing to hepatic drug metabolism and protection against environmental toxins. The aim of this study was to identify polymorphisms at the human UGT1A gene locus and to characterize their function and potential association with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Genomic DNA from the blood of 363 subjects (128 patients with HCC, 235 blood donors) was analyzed for polymorphisms of the UGT1A3, UGT1A4, UGT1A8, UGT1A9, UGT1A10 genes using polymerase chain reaction, sequencing analysis. Recombinant variant UGT protein was analyzed by activity assays. In the UGT1A8 gene an A173G variant and a conserved G to A exchange at position 765 were detected in 25% and 15%. UGT1A9 exhibited two variants C3Y and M33T in 1% and 3%. UGT1A10 exhibited conserved nucleotide exchanges (128 G-->A and 696 C-->T) in 2% and 13%. In the UGT1A3 gene a W11R, a V47A variant, and a conserved G to A exchange at position 81 with an incidence of 65%, 58%, and 65%, respectively, were identified. UGT1A4 exhibited a P24T and an L48V variant in 8% and 9%. UGT1A SNPs were not associated with HCC. UGT1A4 P24T and L48V exhibited reduced glucuronidation activities: beta-naphthylamine 30% and 50%, and dihydrotestosterone 50% and 0%, respectively. In conclusion, the high prevalence of SNPs throughout the human UGT1A gene locus illustrates a genetic basis of interindividual variations of hepatic metabolism. Two polymorphisms of the hepatic UGT1A4 protein show a differential metabolic activity toward mutagenic amines and endogenous steroids, altering hepatic metabolism and detoxification.

Inactivation of androgens by UDP-glucuronosyltransferase enzymes in humans

In humans, 3beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (3beta-HSD), 17beta-HSD and 5alpha-reductase activities in androgen target tissues, such as the prostate and skin, convert dehydroepiandrosterone, androstenedione and testosterone into the most potent natural androgen dihydrotestosterone (DHT). This androgen is converted mainly in situ into two phase I metabolites, androsterone (ADT) and androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol (3alpha-DIOL), which might be back converted to DHT. Here, we discuss the recent findings regarding the characterization of specific UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs), UGT2B7, B15 and B17, responsible for the glucuronidation of these metabolites. The tissue distribution and cellular localization of the UGT2B transcripts and proteins in humans clearly indicate that these enzymes are synthesized in androgen-sensitive tissues. It is postulated that the conjugating activity of UGT enzymes is the main mechanism for modulating the action of steroids and protecting the androgen-sensitive tissues from deleteriously high concentrations of DHT, ADT and 3alpha-DIOL.