Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea and colitis

Successful treatments with polymyxin B hemoperfusion and recombinant human thrombomodulin for fulminant Clostridium difficile-associated colitis with septic shock and disseminated intravascular coagulation: a case report

BACKGROUND

Clostridium difficile (CD)-associated colitis (CDAC) is endemic and a common nosocomial enteric disease encountered by surgeons in modern hospitals due to prophylactic or therapeutic antibiotic therapies. Currently, the incidence of fulminant CDAC, which readily causes septic shock followed by multiple organ dysfunction syndromes, is increasing. Fulminant CDAC requires surgeons to perform a prompt surgery, such as subtotal colectomy, to remove the septic source. It is known that fulminant CDAC is caused by the shift from an inflammatory response at a local mucosal level to a general systemic inflammatory reaction in which CD toxin-induced mediators' cascades disseminate. Recently, it has been proven that polymyxin B hemoperfusion (PMX-HP) improves septic shock and recombinant human thrombomodulin (rhTM) controls disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC). In addition, clinically and basically, it has been shown that these treatments can control serous chemical mediators. Therefore, it is considered that these treatments are promising ones for patients with fulminant CDAC. In the current report, we present that these treatments without surgery contributed to the improvement of sepsis due to fulminant CDAC.

CASE PRESENTATION

We encountered a case who developed fulminant CDAC with septic shock and DIC after laparoscopic gastrectomy for gastric cancer. At admission to the intensive care unit, his APACHE II score was 22, which indicated an estimated risk of hospital death of 42.4 %. Our therapies were not the subtotal colectomy to remove septic sources but the combination treatments with both PMX-HP and rhTM. These combination therapies resulted in excellent outcomes, namely the dramatic improvement of septic shock and DIC and the patient's survival. We speculate that these combination therapies completely inhibit the CD toxin-induced mediators' cascades and correspond to the removal of septic sources.

CONCLUSIONS

We recommend both PMX-HP and rhTM for patients who develop fulminant CDAC with septic shock and DIC to increase the survival benefit and replace the need for surgical treatment.

Fecal Microbiota Transplant

Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) has steadily increased in incidence since the 1990s, with an associated increase in recurrence and severity, which has in turn lead to more intensive care unit (ICU) admissions. The development of recurrent CDI, in particular, has been associated with increasing patient morbidity and mortality as well as an immense financial burden on the health care system. Recently, fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) has received much publicity as an effective means of treatment for recurrent CDI. The goal of this review is to provide evidence-based recommendations for the diagnosis and management of CDI, with a particular focus on FMT and its utilization in the ICU.

Novel Clostridium difficile Anti-Toxin (TcdA and TcdB) Humanized Monoclonal Antibodies Demonstrate In Vitro Neutralization across a Broad Spectrum of Clinical Strains and In Vivo Potency in a Hamster Spore Challenge Model

Clostridium difficile (C. difficile) infection (CDI) is the main cause of nosocomial antibiotic-associated colitis and increased incidence of community-associated diarrhea in industrialized countries. At present, the primary treatment of CDI is antibiotic administration, which is effective but often associated with recurrence, especially in the elderly. Pathogenic strains produce enterotoxin, toxin A (TcdA), and cytotoxin, toxin B (TcdB), which are necessary for C. difficile induced diarrhea and gut pathological changes. Administration of anti-toxin antibodies provides an alternative approach to treat CDI, and has shown promising results in preclinical and clinical studies. In the current study, several humanized anti-TcdA and anti-TcdB monoclonal antibodies were generated and their protective potency was characterized in a hamster infection model. The humanized anti-TcdA (CANmAbA4) and anti-TcdB (CANmAbB4 and CANmAbB1) antibodies showed broad spectrum in vitro neutralization of toxins from clinical strains and neutralization in a mouse toxin challenge model. Moreover, co-administration of humanized antibodies (CANmAbA4 and CANmAbB4 cocktail) provided a high level of protection in a dose dependent manner (85% versus 57% survival at day 22 for 50 mg/kg and 20 mg/kg doses, respectively) in a hamster gastrointestinal infection (GI) model. This study describes the protective effects conferred by novel neutralizing anti-toxin monoclonal antibodies against C. difficile toxins and their potential as therapeutic agents in treating CDI.

Management of an Outbreak ofClostridium difficile–Associated Disease Among Geriatric Patients

Objective.

To describe a nosocomial outbreak ofClostridium difficile–associated disease (CDAD).

Design.

A traditional outbreak investigation.

Setting.

Geriatric department of a tertiary care teaching hospital from March through April 2003.

Methods.

The outbreak was detected by theC. difficilesurveillance program of the infection control unit. CDAD was diagnosed by stool culture and fecal toxin A detection with a qualitative rapid immunoassay. Isolates ofC difficilewere serotyped and genotyped using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis.

Results.

The incidence of CDAD increased from 27 cases per 100,000 patient-days in the 6-month period before the outbreak to 99 cases per 100,000 patient-days during the outbreak. This outbreak involved 21 of 92 patients in 4 geriatric wards, which were located at 2 geographically distinct sites and staffed by the same medical team. The mean age of patients was 83 years (range, 71-100 years). Five (24%) of the 21 patients had community-acquired diarrhea, and secondary hospital transmission resulted in 3 clusters involving 16 patients. Serotyping and genotyping were performed on isolates in stool specimens from 19 different patients; 16 of these isolates were serotype A1, whereas 3 displayed profiles different from the outbreak strain. Management of this outbreak consisted in reinforcement of contact isolation precautions for patients with diarrhea, cohorting of infected patients in the same ward, and promotion of hand hygiene. Relapses occurred in 6 (29%) of 21 patients.

Conclusion.

Control of this rapidly developing outbreak of CDAD was obtained with early implementation of cohorting and ward closure and reinforcement of environmental disinfection, hand hygiene, and enteric isolation precautions.

Clostridium difficile Infections in Children: Impact of the Diagnostic Method on Infection Rates

BACKGROUND

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays based on the detection of the toxin B gene are replacing enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)–based toxin production detection or cell cytotoxicity assay in most laboratories.

OBJECTIVE

To determine the proportion of pediatric patients diagnosed withClostridium difficile infection by PCR who would have also been diagnosed by ELISA and to compare the clinical characteristics of PCR+/ELISA+ vs PCR+/ELISA− patients.

METHODS

Using the microbiology laboratory information system, stool samples positive for C. difficile by PCR between October 2010 and July 2014 were identified. Using frozen stool specimens, an ELISA for toxin A and B was performed. A retrospective medical chart review was conducted to obtain demographic and clinical data. Duplicate samples were excluded.

RESULTS

A total of 136 PCR-positive samples underwent ELISA testing: 54 (40%) were positive for toxin A or B. The mean (SD) age of the entire cohort was 8.5 (6.2) years. There was no difference in age, gender, clinical manifestation, previous medical problems, and management between patients positive or negative by ELISA. However, patients positive by ELISA were more likely to have had a recent exposure to antibiotics (67.9% vs 50%; crude odds ratio, 2.1 [95% CI, 1.03–4.28]).

CONCLUSION

In our pediatric population, 60% of patients with C. difficile diagnosed by PCR had no toxin detectable by ELISA. ELISA-negative patients were less likely to have received an antibiotic recently compared with ELISA-positive patients. These results highlight the need to standardize laboratory criteria for the diagnosis of C. difficile infections in children.

Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2016;37:1087–1093

Single domain antibody coated gold nanoparticles as enhancer for Clostridium difficile toxin detection by electrochemical impedance immunosensors

This work presents a sandwich-type electrochemical impedance immunosensor for detecting Clostridium difficile toxin A (TcdA) and toxin B (TcdB). Single domain antibody conjugated gold nanoparticles were applied to amplify the detection signal. Gold nanoparticles (Au NPs) were characterized by transmission electron microscopy and UV–vis spectra. The electron transfer resistance (Ret) of the working electrode surface was used as a parameter in the measurement of the biosensor. With the increase of the concentration of toxins from 1 pg/mL to 100 pg/mL, a linear relationship was observed between the relative electron transfer resistance and toxin concentration. In addition, the detection signal was enhanced due to the amplification effect. The limit of detection for TcdA and TcdB was found to be 0.61 pg/mL and 0.60 pg/mL respectively at a signal-to-noise ratio of 3 (S/N = 3). This method is simple, fast and ultrasensitive, thus possesses a great potential for clinical applications in the future.

Developing a Clinical Prediction Rule for First Hospital-Onset Clostridium difficile Infections: A Retrospective Observational Study

BACKGROUND The healthcare burden of hospital-acquired Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) demands attention and calls for a solution. Identifying patients' risk of developing a primary nosocomial CDI is a critical first step in reducing the development of new cases of CDI. OBJECTIVE To derive a clinical prediction rule that can predict a patient's risk of acquiring a primary CDI. DESIGN Retrospective cohort study. SETTING Large tertiary healthcare center. PATIENTS Total of 61,482 subjects aged at least 18 admitted over a 1-year period (2013). INTERVENTION None. METHODS Patient demographic characteristics, evidence of CDI, and other risk factors were retrospectively collected. To derive the CDI clinical prediction rule the patient population was divided into a derivation and validation cohort. A multivariable analysis was performed in the derivation cohort to identify risk factors individually associated with nosocomial CDI and was validated on the validation sample. RESULTS Among 61,482 subjects, CDI occurred in 0.46%. CDI outcome was significantly associated with age, admission in the past 60 days, mechanical ventilation, dialysis, history of congestive heart failure, and use of antibiotic medications. The sensitivity and specificity of the score, in the validation set, were 82.0% and 75.7%, respectively. The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve was 0.85. CONCLUSION This study successfully derived a clinical prediction rule that will help identify patients at high risk for primary CDI. This tool will allow physicians to systematically recognize those at risk for CDI and will allow for early interventional strategies. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2016;37:896-900.

Infectious Diarrhea: Norovirus and Clostridium difficile in Older Adults

Norovirus infection usually results in acute gastroenteritis, often with incapacitating nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. It is highly contagious and resistant to eradication with alcohol-based hand sanitizer. Appropriate preventative and infection control measures can mitigate the morbidity and mortality associated with norovirus infection. Clostridium difficile infection is the leading cause of health care-associated diarrhea in the United States. Antibiotic use is by far the most common risk factor for C difficile colonization and infection. Appropriate preventive measures and judicious use of antibiotics can help mitigate the morbidity and mortality associated with C difficile infection.

Surgical Management of Clostridium difficile Infection: The Role of Colectomy

Management of Clostridium difficile infections is usually accomplished through appropriate antimicrobial therapy. However, in patients that do not respond to this therapy, rapid and potentially lethal progressive organ dysfunction care occurs. Although supportive care and continued antimicrobial therapy is important, surgical therapy is critical to eradication of the inflammatory process and reversal of the dysregulated immunity associated with severe C. difficile infections. In the following paper, the role of colectomy is reviewed.

Nosocomial Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea in Assiut University Children's Hospital, Egypt

BACKGROUND

There are no large epidemiological studies of Clostridium difficile-associated disease (CDAD) in hospitalised children.

AIM

To describe the frequency, demography, clinical features and outcome of nosocomial CDAD in children admitted to Assiut University Children's Hospital, Egypt.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

In this descriptive cross-sectional study, 72 children developed nosocomial diarrhoea between April 2010 and March 2011. A medical history, clinical assessment and culture for Clostridium difficile and direct toxin detection from stool samples by enzyme immuno-assay were undertaken in all patients.

RESULTS

CDAD was diagnosed in 17 (23·6%) patients. Those aged ≤12 months were the most commonly affected (eight, 47%). The main cause of admission was respiratory disorders (eight, 47% of cases), followed by surgical problems (three, 17·7%). Ten patients (58·8%) had severe symptoms. There were no statistically significant differences between any of the demographic or laboratory data for children with CDAD and children with other causes of nosocomial diarrhoea. None of the patients developed complications. Seven children with CDAD (41·2%) had recurrence.

CONCLUSION

CDAD is an important cause of nosocomial diarrhoea in children in Assiut University Children's Hospital. Established guidelines should be followed in all hospitals to minimise exposure to the pathogen. Physicians can do much to reduce the risk of a severe outcome in children by early identification and rapid management. Further research should be undertaken to identify the risk factors for recurrence.

Current Trends in the Epidemiology and Outcomes of Clostridium difficile Infection

Clostridium difficile is the most frequently identified cause of nosocomial diarrhea and has been associated with epidemics of diarrhea in hospitals and long-term care facilities. The continued increase in C. difficile infection (CDI) suggests that it has surpassed other pathogens in causing healthcare-associated infections. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recently identified CDI as an "urgent threat" in its recent report on antibiotic resistance threats in the United States, highlighting the need for urgent and aggressive action to prevent this infection. The impact of antibiotics as a risk factor for new-onset CDI is well established; however, recognizing classes of antibiotics with the highest risks and reducing unnecessary antibiotic use are important strategies for prevention of CDI and subsequent recurrence. In addition, the recognition of the community as an important setting for onset of CDI presents a challenge and is an area for future research.

Novel approaches to treating Clostridium difficile-associated colitis

Clostridium difficile is being recognized as a growing threat to many health-care systems. Epidemiology data shows that infection rates are soaring and the disease burden is increasing. Despite the efficacy of standard treatments, it is becoming evident that novel therapeutics will be required to tackle this disease. These new treatments aim to enhance the intestinal microbial barrier, activate the immune system and neutralize the toxins that mediate this disease. Many of these therapies are still in the beginning stages of investigation, however, in the next few years, more clinical data will become available to help implement many of these exciting new therapeutic approaches.

[Identifying gaps between guidelines and clinical practice in Clostridium difficile infection]

OBJECTIVES

The first aim was to determine whether patients are being treated in accordance with the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America and the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA/SHEA) Clostridium difficile guidelines and whether adherence impacts patient outcomes. The second aim was to identify specific action items in the guidelines that are not being translated into clinical practice, for their subsequent implementation.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A retrospective, descriptive study was conducted over a 36 month period, on patients with compatible clinical symptoms and positive test for C. difficile toxins A and/or B in stool samples, in an internal medicine department of a tertiary medical centre. Patient demographic and clinical data (outcomes, comorbidity, risk factors) and compliance with guidelines, were examined

RESULTS

A total of 77 patients with C. difficile infection were identified (87 episodes). Stratified by disease severity criteria, 49.3% of patients were mild-moderate, 35.1% severe, and 15.6% severe-complicated. Full adherence with the guidelines was observed in only 40.2% of patients, and was significantly better for mild-moderate (71.0%), than in severe (7.4%) or severe-complicated patients (16.6%) (P<.003). Adherence was significantly associated with clinical cure (57% vs 42%), fewer recurrences (22.2% vs 77.7%), and mortality (25% vs 75%) (P<.01). The stratification of severity of the episode, and the adequacy of antibiotic to clinical severity, need improvement.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall adherence with the guidelines for management of Clostridium difficile infection was poor, especially in severe and severe-complicated patients, being associated with worse clinical outcomes. Educational interventions aimed at improving guideline adherence are warranted.

Asymptomatic Clostridium difficile colonization: epidemiology and clinical implications

BACKGROUND

The epidemiology of Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) has changed over the past decades with the emergence of highly virulent strains. The role of asymptomatic C. difficile colonization as part of the clinical spectrum of CDI is complex because many risk factors are common to both disease and asymptomatic states. In this article, we review the role of asymptomatic C. difficile colonization in the progression to symptomatic CDI, describe the epidemiology of asymptomatic C. difficile colonization, assess the effectiveness of screening and intensive infection control practices for patients at risk of asymptomatic C. difficile colonization, and discuss the implications for clinical practice.

METHODS

A narrative review was performed in PubMed for articles published from January 1980 to February 2015 using search terms 'Clostridium difficile' and 'colonization' or 'colonisation' or 'carriage'.

RESULTS

There is no clear definition for asymptomatic CDI and the terms carriage and colonization are often used interchangeably. The prevalence of asymptomatic C. difficile colonization varies depending on a number of host, pathogen, and environmental factors; current estimates of asymptomatic colonization may be underestimated as stool culture is not practical in a clinical setting.

CONCLUSIONS

Asymptomatic C. difficile colonization presents challenging concepts in the overall picture of this disease and its management. Individuals who are colonized by the organism may acquire protection from progression to disease, however they also have the potential to contribute to transmission in healthcare settings.

Clostridium difficile infection in Chilean patients submitted to hematopoietic stem cell transplantation

Introduction

Patients submitted to hematopoietic stem cell transplantation have an increased risk of Clostridium difficile infection and multiple risk factors have been identified. Published reports have indicated an incidence from 9% to 30% of transplant patients however to date there is no information about infection in these patients in Chile.

Methods

A retrospective analysis was performed of patients who developed C. difficile infection after hematopoietic stem cell transplantations from 2000 to 2013. Statistical analysis used the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences software.

Results

Two hundred and fifty patients were studied (mean age: 39 years; range: 17–69), with 147 (59%) receiving allogeneic transplants and 103 (41%) receiving autologous transplants. One hundred and ninety-two (77%) patients had diarrhea, with 25 (10%) cases of C. difficile infection being confirmed. Twenty infected patients had undergone allogeneic transplants, of which ten had acute lymphoblastic leukemia, three had acute myeloid leukemia and seven had other diseases (myelodysplastic syndrome, chronic myeloid leukemia, severe aplastic anemia). In the autologous transplant group, five patients had C. difficile infection; two had multiple myeloma, one had amyloidosis, one had acute myeloid leukemia and one had germinal carcinoma. The overall incidence of C. difficile infection was 4% within the first week, 6.4% in the first month and 10% in one year, with no difference in overall survival between infected and non-infected groups (72.0% vs. 67.6%, respectively; p-value = 0.56). Patients infected after allogeneic transplants had a slower time to neutrophil engraftment compared to non-infected patients (17.5 vs. 14.9 days, respectively; p-value = 0.008). In the autologous transplant group there was no significant difference in the neutrophil engraftment time between infected and non-infected patients (12.5 days vs. 11.8 days, respectively; p-value = 0.71). In the allogeneic transplant group, the median time to acute graft-versus-host disease was similar between the two groups (p-value = 0.08), as was the incidence of grades 1–4 acute graft-versus-host disease (40% vs. 48%; p-value >0.05).

Conclusion

The incidence of C. difficile infection after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation was low, with a significant number of cases occurring shortly after transplantation. Allogeneic transplants had a three-time higher risk of infection compared to autologous transplants, but this was not associated with increased mortality, decreased overall survival or higher risk of acute graft-versus-host disease.

Recurrent Clostridium difficile infection: From colonization to cure

Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) is increasingly prevalent, dangerous and challenging to prevent and manage. Despite intense national and international attention the incidence of primary and of recurrent CDI (PCDI and RCDI, respectively) have risen rapidly throughout the past decade. Of major concern is the increase in cases of RCDI resulting in substantial morbidity, morality and economic burden. RCDI management remains challenging as there is no uniformly effective therapy, no firm consensus on optimal treatment, and reliable data regarding RCDI-specific treatment options is scant. Novel therapeutic strategies are critically needed to rapidly, accurately, and effectively identify and treat patients with, or at-risk for, RCDI. In this review we consider the factors implicated in the epidemiology, pathogenesis and clinical presentation of RCDI, evaluate current management options for RCDI and explore novel and emerging therapies.

Enteral Nutrition for Adults in the Hospital Setting

In patients unable to tolerate oral intake, multiple options of nutrient delivery are available to the clinician. Administration of enteral nutrition (EN) has long been considered the standard of care for nutrition support among patients unable to meet energy and protein requirements orally. Healthcare practitioners must make careful decisions related to ordering, administering, and monitoring EN therapy. In the hospital setting, the registered dietitian is a key resource in enteral formula selection and method of administration, monitoring for and troubleshooting EN-related complications, and transitioning to oral feeding. The hospital setting also presents many unique challenges in providing optimal nutrition to the enterally fed patient.

A Novel Quantitative Sampling Technique for Detection and Monitoring of Clostridium difficile Contamination in the Clinical Environment

The horizontal transmission of Clostridium difficile in the hospital environment is difficult to establish. Current methods to detect C. difficile spores on surfaces are not quantitative, lack sensitivity, and are protracted. We propose a novel rapid method to detect and quantify C. difficile contamination on surfaces. Sponge swabbing was compared to contact plate sampling to assess the in vitro recovery of C. difficile ribotype 027 contamination (∼10(0), 10(1), or 10(2) CFU of spores) from test surfaces (a bed rail, a stainless steel sheet, or a polypropylene work surface). Sponge swab contents were concentrated by vacuum filtration, and the filter membrane was plated onto selective agar. The efficacy of each technique for the recovery of C. difficile from sites in the clinical environment that are touched at a high frequency was evaluated. Contact plates recovered 19 to 32% of the total contamination on test surfaces, whereas sponge swabs recovered 76 to 94% of the total contamination, and contact plates failed to detect C. difficile contamination below a detection limit of 10 CFU/25 cm(2) (0.4 CFU/cm(2)). In use, contact plates failed to detect C. difficile contamination (0/96 contact plates; 4 case wards), while sponge swabs recovered C. difficile from 29% (87/301) of the surfaces tested in the clinical environment. Approximately 74% (36/49) of the area in the vicinity of the patient was contaminated (∼1.34 ± 6.88 CFU/cm(2) C. difficile spores). Reservoirs of C. difficile extended to beyond the areas near the patient: a dirty utility room sink (2.26 ± 5.90 CFU/cm(2)), toilet floor (1.87 ± 2.40 CFU/cm(2)), and chair arm (1.33 ± 4.69 CFU/cm(2)). C. difficile was present on floors in ∼90% of case wards. This study highlights that sampling with a contact plate may fail to detect C. difficile contamination and result in false-negative reporting. Our sponge sampling technique permitted the rapid and quantitative measurement of C. difficile contamination on surfaces with a sensitivity (limit, 0 CFU) greater than that which is otherwise possible. This technique could be implemented for routine surface hygiene monitoring for targeted cleaning interventions and as a tool to investigate routes of patient-patient transmission in the clinical environment.

Proposed Checklist of Hospital Interventions to Decrease the Incidence of Healthcare-Associated Clostridium difficile Infection

Background.

The incidence and severity of Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) are increasing, and previously described interventions for controlling the spread of CDI are not easily generalized to multiple healthcare institutions.

Objective.

We tested prevention and treatment bundles to decrease the incidence of CDI and the mortality associated with CDI at our hospital.

Design.

Observational before-after study of adult patients admitted to a tertiary care, university-affiliated hospital during the period from January 2004 through December 2008.

Methods.

In January 2006, we launched an educational campaign and introduced a prevention bundle—a series of specific processes aimed at preventing the transmission of C. difficile among hospitalized patients, including enhanced isolation practices, laboratory notification procedures, and steps coordinating infection control and environmental services activities. In April 2006, we implemented a treatment bundle—a set of hospital-wide treatment practices aimed at minimizing the risk of serious CDI complications. We tracked quarterly incidence rates and case-fatality rates for healthcare-associated CDI cases at our hospital. Our main outcome was the healthcare-associated CDI incidence rate, measured as the number of healthcare-associated cases of CDI per 1,000 patient-days.

Results.

We followed patients for a total of 1,047,849 patient-days. The healthcare-associated CDI incidence rates fell from an average of 1.10 cases per 1,000 patient-days before intervention to 0.66 cases per 1,000 patient-days after intervention. This statistically significant decrease amounts to a 40% reduction in incidence after the intervention.

Conclusions.

Our intervention was successful in reducing the incidence of CDI at our hospital. On the basis of our experience, we propose the use of a checklist of hospital interventions to decrease the incidence of healthcare-associated CDI.

Increase in Use of Vancomycin for Clostridium difficile Infection in US Hospitals

Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) is a potentially serious disease for which the epidemiology has recently changed, because of an emerging drug-resistant strain of the pathogen. Metronidazole and oral vancomycin are the primary treatment agents.2 Metronidazole has been historically favored as the first-line agent, partly to reduce the selection pressure for vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE), although metronidazole can also select for VRE. Vancomycin was traditionally reserved for metronidazole treatment failure or life-threatening disease. In a study conducted before emergence of the epidemic strain, vancomycin was reported to be superior for the initial treatment of severe CDI and for treatment of CDI that does not respond to metronidazole. Expert opinion calling for the use of vancomycin as first-line therapy, especially for severe CDI emergence of the epidemic strain, and reports of decreased metronidazole efficacy may have impacted CDI treatment practices. The purpose of this study was to characterize trends in CDI treatment in US hospitals.

Clinical Practice Guidelines for Clostridium difficile Infection in Adults: 2010 Update by the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America (SHEA) and the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA)

Since publication of the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America position paper onClostridium difficileinfection in 1995, significant changes have occurred in the epidemiology and treatment of this infection.C. difficileremains the most important cause of healthcare-associated diarrhea and is increasingly important as a community pathogen. A more virulent strain ofC. difficilehas been identified and has been responsible for more-severe cases of disease worldwide. Data reporting the decreased effectiveness of metronidazole in the treatment of severe disease have been published. Despite the increasing quantity of data available, areas of controversy still exist. This guideline updates recommendations regarding epidemiology, diagnosis, treatment, and infection control and environmental management.

The Emerging Infectious Challenge of Clostridium difficile-Associated Disease in Massachusetts Hospitals: Clinical and Economic Consequences

Objective.

To estimate the clinical and economic burden of Clostridium difficile-associated disease (CDAD) in Massachusetts over 2 years.

Design.

A retrospective analysis of Massachusetts hospital discharge data from 1999-2003 was conducted. Cases of CDAD in 2000 were identified using code 008.45 from the International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision, Clinical Modification; patients were excluded if they had a hospitalization in the prior year during which a diagnosis of CDAD was recorded. Hospitalizations for CDAD during 2001 and 2002 were examined. For primary case patients (ie, those for which CDAD was the principal diagnosis), all inpatient costs were deemed to be related, whereas for secondary case patients, all-patient refined diagnosis-related group assignment, case severity level, and length of stay (LOS) were used to calculate incremental costs attributable to CDAD. Costs were adjusted to the national level and reported in 2005 US dollars.

Results.

The CDAD cohort consisted of 3,692 patients; 59% were women, and the mean age was 70 years. This group represented 1% of all patients hospitalized in Massachusetts in 2000 (96% of hospitals treated at least 1 case; range, 1-257 cases). Of patients who received a first hospital diagnosis of CDAD in 2000, a total of 28% were primary case patients; their mean LOS was 6.4 days, and the mean cost per stay was $10,212. For secondary case patients, the mean CDAD-related incremental LOS was 2.95 days, and the mean incremental cost per stay was $13,675 per patient. Of patients with CDAD who survived their index stay in 2000, a total of 455 (14%) had at least 1 readmission for CDAD within the subsequent 2 years (mean number of readmissions, 1.4 per patient; range, 1-7 readmissions), with a mean time to first readmission of 3 months. Over 2 years, a total of 55,380 inpatient-days and $51.2 million were consumed by CDAD management.

Conclusion.

CDAD is widespread in Massachusetts hospitals. Rehospitalization with CDAD, if it occurs, generally happens within a few months and happens multiple times for some patients. Based on this study's findings, a conservative estimate of the annual US cost for CDAD management is $3.2 billion dollars.

Impact of Hydrogen Peroxide Vapor Room Decontamination on Clostridium difficile Environmental Contamination and Transmission in a Healthcare Setting

Objective.

To determine whether hydrogen peroxide vapor (HPV) decontamination can reduce environmental contamination with and nosocomial transmission of Clostridium difficile.

Design.

A prospective before-after intervention study.

Setting.

A hospital affected by an epidemic strain of C. difficile.

Intervention.

Intensive HPV decontamination of 5 high-incidence wards followed by hospital-wide decontamination of rooms vacated by patients with C. difficile-associated disease (CDAD). The preintervention period was June 2004 through March 2005, and the intervention period was June 2005 through March 2006.

Results.

Eleven (25.6%) of 43 cultures of samples collected by sponge from surfaces before HPV decontamination yielded C. difficile, compared with 0 of 37 cultures of samples obtained after HPV decontamination (P < .001). On 5 high-incidence wards, the incidence of nosocomial CDAD was significantly lower during the intervention period than during the preintervention period (1.28 vs 2.28 cases per 1,000 patient-days; P = .047). The hospital-wide CDAD incidence was lower during the intervention period than during the preintervention period (0.84 vs 1.36 cases per 1,000 patient-days; P = .26). In an analysis limited to months in which the epidemic strain was present during both the preintervention and the intervention periods, CDAD incidence was significandy lower during the intervention period than during the preintervention period (0.88 vs 1.89 cases per 1,000 patient-days; P = .047).

Conclusions.

HPV decontamination was efficacious in eradicating C. difficile from contaminated surfaces. Further studies of the impact of HPV decontamination on nosocomial transmission of C. difficile are warranted.

Moxifloxacin Therapy as a Risk Factor forClostridium difficile–Associated Disease During an Outbreak: Attempts to Control a New Epidemic Strain

An outbreak ofClostridium difficile-associated disease (CDAD) caused by the epidemic North American pulsed-field gel electrophoresis type 1 (NAP1) strain began after a formulary change from levofloxacin to moxifloxacin. Cases of CDAD were associated with moxifloxacin use, but a formulary change back to levofloxacin failed to reduce rates of disease. Substituting use of one fluoroquinolone with use of another without also controlling the overall use of drugs from this class is unlikely to control outbreaks caused by the NAP1 strain ofC. difficile.

Clostridium difficileInfection in a Long-Term Care Facility: Hospital-Associated Illness Compared with Long-Term Care-Associated Illness

Background.

Controversy exists over whetherClostridium difficileinfection (CDI) commonly occurs in long-term care facility residents who have not been recently transferred from an acute care hospital.

Objective.

To assess the incidence and outcome of CDI in a long-term care facility.

Methods.

Retrospective cohort study in a 262-bed long-term care Veterans Affairs facility in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, for the period January 2004 through June 2010. CDI was identified by positive stoolC. difficiletoxin assay and acute diarrhea. Patients were categorized as hospital-associated CDI (HACDI) or long-term care facility–associated CDI (LACDI) and followed for 6 months.

Results.

The annual rate of CDI varied between 0.11 and 0.23 per 1,000 resident-days for HACDI patients and between 0.04 and 0.28 per 1,000 resident-days for LACDI patients. We identified 162 patients, 96 patients (59.3%) with HACDI and 66 patients (40.7%) with LACDI. Median age was 74 and 77 years, respectively, for HACDI and LACDI (P= .055) patients. There were more patients with at least 1 relapse of CDI during 6 months of follow up in LACDI patients (32/66, 48.5%) than in HACDI patients (28/96, 29.2%;P= .009). Logistic regression showed that ages of at least 75 years (odds ratio [OR], 2.33; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.07–5.07;P= .033), more than 2 transfers to an acute care hospital (OR, 7.88; 95% CI, 1.88–32.95;P= .005), and LACDI (OR, 3.15; 95% CI, 1.41–7.05;P= .005) were associated with relapse of CDI.

Conclusions.

Forty percent of CDI cases were acquired within the long-term care facility, indicating a substantial degree of transmission. Optimal strategies to prevent CDI in the long-term care facility are needed.

Adherence to and Outcomes Associated with a Clostridium difficile Guideline at a Large Teaching Institution

Purpose

The incidence and virulence of Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) has recently increased. National CDI treatment guidelines stratify patients based on clinical symptoms and recommend treatment based on severity of illness. In 2009, Advocate Lutheran General Hospital (Park Ridge, Illinois) adopted guidelines with treatment algorithms identical to the national guidelines. The purpose of this study was to determine whether patients were being treated in accordance with the CDI guidelines and whether adherence impacted patient outcomes.

Methods

This was a retrospective, descriptive study. Subjects were identified by CDI-associated ICD-9 codes from July 1, 2009 to June 30, 2011 and stratified by disease severity. Guideline adherence was assessed based on initial treatment selection, and subjects were then further categorized as undertreated (UT), overtreated (OT), or appropriately treated (AT). Secondary endpoints included need for therapy escalation, clinical cure, recurrence rates, 90-day all-cause mortality, proton pump inhibitor (PPI), and antimicrobial use.

Results

Two hundred fifty subjects totaling 324 encounters were analyzed. Overall guideline adherence was 42.9%. Adherence rates by CDI severity were mild-moderate, 53.9%; severe, 39.0%; and severe-complicated, 17.9% ( P < .001). Of all the subjects, 42.9% were AT, 30.9% were OT, and 26.2% were UT. Clinical outcomes between UT versus AT subjects were as follows: therapy escalation required, 34.1% versus 27.5% ( P = .289); clinical cure, 41.2% versus 55.7% ( P = .033); mortality, 24.7% versus 10.1% ( P = .003); and recurrence, 44.7% versus 24.8% ( P < .02). Clinical outcomes between AT versus OT subjects were as follows: therapy escalation required 27.5% versus 14.4% ( P < .02); clinical cure, 55.7% versus 66.7% ( P = .089); mortality, 10.1% versus 7.8% ( P = .553); recurrence, 24.8% versus 27.8% ( P = .871).

Conclusions

The majority of subjects were not treated according to CDI guidelines, particularly those with severe and severe-complicated disease. UT subjects had worse clinical outcomes and OT subjects failed to show significant improvements in clinical outcomes compared to AT subjects. Emphasis should be placed on CDI guideline adherence as this may be associated with improved outcomes.

Prevalence and risk factors of Clostridium difficile infection in patients hospitalized for flare of inflammatory bowel disease: a retrospective assessment

BACKGROUND

Recent studies have identified a high frequency of Clostridium difficile infections in patients with active inflammatory bowel disease.

AIMS

To retrospectively assess the determinants and results of Clostridium difficile testing upon the admission of patients hospitalized with active inflammatory bowel disease in a tertiary care centre and to determine the predicting factors of Clostridium difficile infections.

METHODS

We reviewed all admissions from January 2008 and December 2010 for inflammatory bowel disease flare-ups. A toxigenic culture and a stool cytotoxicity assay were performed for all patients tested for Clostridium difficile.

RESULTS

Out of 813 consecutive stays, Clostridium difficile diagnostic assays have been performed in 59% of inpatients. The independent predictive factors for the testing were IBD (ulcerative colitis: OR 2.0, 95% CI 1.5-2.9; p<0.0001) and colonic involvement at admission (OR 2.2, 95% CI 1.5-3.1, p<0.0001). Clostridium difficile infection was present in 7.0% of the inpatients who underwent testing. In a multivariate analysis, the only independent predictor was the intake of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs within the two months before admission (OR 3.8, 95% CI 1.2-12.3; p=0.02).

CONCLUSIONS

Clostridium difficile infection is frequently associated with active inflammatory bowel disease. Our study suggests that a recent intake of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs is a risk factor for inflammatory bowel disease -associated Clostridium difficile infection.

Predicting the risk of Clostridium difficile infection following an outpatient visit: development and external validation of a pragmatic, prognostic risk score

Increasing morbidity related to Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) has heightened interest in the identification of patients who would most benefit from recognition of risk and intervention. We sought to develop and validate a prognostic risk score to predict CDI risk for individual patients following an outpatient healthcare visit. We assembled a cohort of Kaiser Permanente Northwest (KPNW) patients with an index outpatient visit between 2005 and 2008, and identified CDI in the year following that visit. Applying Cox regression, we synthesized a priori predictors into a CDI risk score, which we validated among a Kaiser Permanente Colorado (KPCO) cohort. We calculated and plotted the observed 1-year CDI risk for each decile of predicted risk for both cohorts. Among 356 920 KPNW patients, 608 experienced CDI, giving a 1-year incidence of 2.2 CDIs per 1000 patients. The Cox model differentiated between patients who do and do not develop CDI: there was a C-statistic of 0.83 for KPNW. The simpler points-based risk score, derived from the Cox model, was validated successfully among 296 550 KPCO patients, with no decline in the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve: 0.785 (KPNW) vs. 0.790 (KPCO). The predicted risk for CDI agreed closely with the observed risk. Our CDI risk score utilized data collected during usual care to successfully identify patients who developed CDI, discriminating them from patients at the lowest risk for CDI. Our prognostic CDI risk score provides a decision-making tool for clinicians in the outpatient setting.

Synthetic polymers active against Clostridium difficile vegetative cell growth and spore outgrowth

Nylon-3 polymers (poly-β-peptides) have been investigated as synthetic mimics of host-defense peptides in recent years. These polymers are attractive because they are much easier to synthesize than are the peptides themselves, and the polymers resist proteolysis. Here we describe in vitro analysis of selected nylon-3 copolymers against Clostridium difficile, an important nosocomial pathogen that causes highly infectious diarrheal disease. The best polymers match the human host-defense peptide LL-37 in blocking vegetative cell growth and inhibiting spore outgrowth. The polymers and LL-37 were effective against both the epidemic 027 ribotype and the 012 ribotype. In contrast, neither vancomycin nor nisin inhibited outgrowth for the 012 ribotype. The best polymer was less hemolytic than LL-37. Overall, these findings suggest that nylon-3 copolymers may be useful for combatting C. difficle.

Clostridium difficile infection: a review of the literature

Clostridium difficile is a Gram-positive, strictly anaerobic, spore-forming bacterium. It is the most common cause of antibiotic-associated diarrhea in hospitals and other healthcare facilities and is of significant concern because of the increasing morbidity and mortality rates as well as increased health care costs. Spectrum of presentation of Clostridium difficile infection ranges from mild, self-limiting diarrhea, to serious diarrhea, pseudomembranous colitis and life-threatening fulminant colitis, which may result in death. Prompt identification of patients with symptomatic Clostridium difficile infection is essential as the majority of patients respond quickly to antimicrobial therapy. Prevention is best accomplished by implementation of infection-control measures and by judicious use of antimicrobial agents.

Assessing control bundles for Clostridium difficile: a review and mathematical model

Clostridium difficile is the leading cause of infectious diarrhea in hospitalized patients. Integrating several infection control and prevention methods is a burgeoning strategy for reducing disease incidence in healthcare settings. We present an up-to-date review of the literature on ‘control bundles' used to mitigate the transmission of this pathogen. All clinical studies of control bundles reported substantial reductions in disease rates, in the order of 33%–61%. Using a biologically realistic mathematical model we then simulated the efficacy of different combinations of the most prominent control methods: stricter antimicrobial stewardship; the administering of probiotics/intestinal microbiota transplantation; and improved hygiene and sanitation. We also assessed the health gains that can be expected from reducing the average length of stay of inpatients. In terms of reducing the rates of colonization, all combinations had the potential to give rise to marked improvements. For example, halving the number of inpatients on broad-spectrum antimicrobials combined with prescribing probiotics or intestinal microbiota transplantation could cut pathogen carriage by two-thirds. However, in terms of symptomatic disease incidence reduction, antimicrobials, probiotics and intestinal microbiota transplantation proved substantially less effective. Eliminating within-ward transmission by improving sanitation and reducing average length of stay (from six to three days) yielded the most potent symptomatic infection control combination, cutting rates down from three to less than one per 1000 hospital bed days. Both the empirical and theoretical exploration of C. difficile control combinations presented in the current study highlights the potential gains that can be achieved through strategically integrated infection control.

Is Clostridium difficile associated with the '4C' antibiotics? A retrospective observational study in diabetic foot ulcer patients

AIMS

Clostridium difficile is an anaerobic cytotoxin-producing bacterium that can cause infectious diarrhoea, pseudomembranous colitis and toxic megacolon. The major risk factors for developing C. difficile infection include recent or current antimicrobial use, diabetes, age over 65, proton pump inhibitor use, immunosuppression and previous infection with C. difficile. Most diabetic foot ulcers are polymicrobial.

METHODS

As a result guidelines advise treatment with broad spectrum antibiotics which include the '4C's' (clindamycin, cephalosporins, co-amoxiclav and ciprofloxacin) which are associated with a higher risk of C. difficile infection. Retrospective observational data (June 2008 to January 2012) for the diabetes foot ulcers were gathered from the Diabetes/Podiatry Clinic database in NHS Ayrshire and Arran and cross-matched with the NHS Ayrshire and Arran Microbiology database. There were 111 patients with mean age 59 years (range 24-94 years), 33 type 1 patients, 78 type 2 patients, mean duration of diabetes 16 years (6 months-37 years) and mean HbA1c 67 mmol/mol (54-108 mmol/mol) [8.3% (7.1-12%)].

RESULTS

The total number of days antimicrobials prescribed for all patients was 7938 (mean number of antimicrobial days per patient = 71.5 days). There was one case of C. difficile infection of 111 patients giving an incidence of 1.25 cases per 10,000 patient-days of antibiotics/1 case per 209 foot ulcers.

CONCLUSIONS

Large doses, numbers and greater duration of antibiotic therapy all result in a greater degree of normal gut flora depletion. It is possible that the alterations in gut flora in diabetic foot ulcer patients protect them from antibiotic-induced C. difficile overgrowth.

Analysis of Clostridium difficile infections after cardiac surgery: epidemiologic and economic implications from national data

OBJECTIVES

Clostridium difficile infections (CDIs) have increased during the past 2 decades, especially among cardiac surgical patients, who share many of the comorbidity risk factors for CDI. Our objectives were to use a large national database to identify the regional-, hospital-, patient-, and procedure-level risk factors for CDI; and determine mortality, resource usage, and cost of CDIs in cardiac surgery.

METHODS

Using the Nationwide Inpatient Sample database, we identified 349,122 patients who had undergone coronary artery bypass, valve, or thoracic-aortic surgery from 2004 to 2008. Of these, 2581 (0.75%) had been diagnosed with CDI. Multivariable regression analysis and the propensity method were used for risk adjustment.

RESULTS

Compared with the West, CDIs were more likely to occur in the Northeast (odds ratio [OR], 1.28; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.12-1.47) and Midwest (OR, 1.27, 95% CI, 1.11-1.46) and less likely in the South (OR, 0.80; 95% CI, 0.70-0.90). Medium-size hospitals (OR, 0.88; 95% CI, 0.78-0.99) had a lower risk of CDI than did large hospitals. Older age (>75 years; OR, 2.59; 95% CI, 1.93-3.49), longer preoperative length of stay (OR, 1.51; 95% CI, 1.43-1.60), Medicare (OR, 1.21; 95% CI, 1.05-1.39) and Medicaid (OR, 1.60; 95% CI, 1.31-1.96) coverage, and more comorbidities were associated with CDI. Among the matched pairs, patients with CDIs had greater mortality (302 [12%] vs 187 [7.2%], P<.001), a longer median length of stay (21 vs 11 days, P<.001), and greater median hospital charges ($193,330 vs $112,245, P<.001). The cumulative incremental cost of CDIs was an estimated $212 million annually.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results have shown that CDI is associated with increased morbidity and resource usage. Additional work is needed to better understand the complex interplay among regional-, hospital-, and patient-level factors.

How do hospital professionals involved in a randomised controlled trial perceive the value of genotyping vs. PCR-ribotyping for control of hospital acquired C. difficile infections?

Background

Despite scientific advances in typing of C. difficile strains very little is known about how hospital staff use typing results during periods of increased incidence (PIIs). This qualitative study, undertaken alongside a randomised controlled trial (RCT), explored this issue. The trial compared ribotyping versus more rapid genotyping (MLVA or multilocus variable repeat analysis) and found no significant difference in post 48 hour cases (C difficile transmissions).

Methods

In-depth qualitative interviews with senior staff in 11/16 hospital trusts in the trial (5 MLVA and 6 Ribotyping). Semi-structured interviews were conducted at end of the trial period. Transcripts were content analysed using framework analysis supported by NVivo-8 software. Common sub-themes were extracted by two researchers independently. These were compared and organised into over-arching categories or ‘super-ordinate themes’.

Results

The trial recorded that 45% of typing tests had some impact on infection control (IC) activities. Interviews indicated that tests had little impact on initial IC decisions. These were driven by hospital protocols and automatically triggered when a PII was identified. To influence decision-making, a laboratory turnaround time < 3 days (ideally 24 hours) was suggested; MLVA turnaround time was 5.3 days. Typing results were predominantly used to modify initiated IC activities such as ward cleaning, audits of practice or staff training; major decisions (e.g. ward closure) were unaffected. Organisational factors could limit utilisation of MLVA results. Results were twice as likely to be reported as ‘aiding management’ (indirect benefit) than impacting on IC activities (direct effect). Some interviewees considered test results provided reassurance about earlier IC decisions; others identified secondary benefits on organisational culture. An underlying benefit of improved discrimination provided by MLVA typing was the ability to explore epidemiology associated with CDI cases in a hospital more thoroughly.

Conclusions

Ribotyping and MLVA are both valued by users. MLVA had little additional direct impact on initial infection control decisions. This would require reduced turnaround time. The major impact is adjustments to earlier IC measures and retrospective reassurance. For this, turnaround time is less important than discriminatory power. The potential remains for wider use of genotyping to examine transmission routes.

Transmission of Clostridium difficile spores in isolation room environments and through hospital beds

The aim of this study was to determine the dissemination of Clostridium difficile (CD) spores in a hospital setting where the potassium monopersulfate-based disinfectant Virkon™ was used for cleaning. In the initial part of the study, we sampled 16 areas of frequent patient contact in 10 patient rooms where a patient with CD infection (CDI) had been accommodated. In the second part of the study, we obtained samples from 10 patient beds after discharge of CDI patients, both before and after the beds were cleaned. In the first part, CDspores were isolated in only 30% of the rooms. In the second part, which focused on transmission to hospital beds, C. difficile was found in four of 10 beds either before or after cleaning. In conclusion, in both parts of the study, we demonstrated a moderate spread of CD spores to the environment despite routine cleaning procedures involving Virkon™.

Clostridium difficile infection in the twenty-first century

Clostridium difficile is a spore-forming gram-positive bacillus, and the leading cause of antibiotic-associated nosocomial diarrhea and colitis in the industrialized world. With the emergence of a hypervirulent strain of C. difficile (BI/NAP1/027), the epidemiology of C. difficile infection has rapidly changed in the last decade. C. difficile infection, once thought to be an easy to treat bacterial infection, has evolved into an epidemic that is associated with a high rate of mortality, causing disease in patients thought to be low-risk. In this review, we discuss the changing face of C .difficile infection and the novel treatment and prevention strategies needed to halt this ever growing epidemic.

[Include representations of caregivers coping with nosocomial Clostridium difficile in Quebec to promote better health]

Au cours des dernières années, la transmission des infections nosocomiales, notamment des infections à Clostridium difficile, est devenue une importante préoccupation au Québec. Pour éviter leur transmission, les experts recommandent notamment la formation du personnel. Dans cet article, nous décrivons la représentation que se font certaines catégories de personnel de la santé à propos des risques reliés à la transmission du Clostridium difficile et leur perception des messages de prévention, afin d’identifier des avenues permettant de contribuer à cette formation. Nous avons effectué 27 entrevues et 186 heures d’observation auprès d’infirmières, infirmières auxiliaires, préposés aux bénéficiaires et préposés à l’entretien sanitaire expérimentés, dans deux unités de soins de courte durée et deux de longue durée d’un hôpital à Montréal. Résultats : le personnel se préoccupe de la transmission du C difficile envers les patients et envers leurs propres familles davantage que des conséquences immédiates sur leur propre santé. Les pratiques pour éviter de transporter le microorganisme à leur maison sont décrites. Malgré l’application de mesures de prévention, certains participants pensent s’être contaminés et être porteurs sains du C difficile, qui persisterait dans leur organisme et pourrait s’activer s’ils sont affaiblis ou sous antibiotiques. Cette contamination surviendrait à cause de situations mettant en échec la prévention : les patients non diagnostiqués et les délais de diagnostic, un manque de formation sur les mesures de prévention et sur les mesures pratiques pour les appliquer et un manque d’information sur les produits désinfectants, ces deux dernières mesures affectant surtout les préposées aux bénéficiaires. Nous concluons sur la nécessité de prendre en compte les préoccupations du personnel dans les interventions éducatives ; de formations pratiques, adaptées au travail et sur le besoin d’information quant aux raisons de changements de produits.