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Cross-species transmission of simian retroviruses: how and why they could lead to the emergence of new diseases in the human population. AIDS 2012; 26:659-73. [PMID: 22441170 DOI: 10.1097/qad.0b013e328350fb68] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The HIV-1 group M epidemic illustrates the extraordinary impact and consequences resulting from a single zoonotic transmission. Exposure to blood or other secretions of infected animals, through hunting and butchering of bushmeat, or through bites and scratches inflicted by pet nonhuman primates (NHPs), represent the most plausible source for human infection with simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), simian T-cell lymphotropic virus (STLV) and simian foamy virus. The chance for cross-species transmissions could increase when frequency of exposure and retrovirus prevalence is high. According to the most recent data, human exposure to SIV or STLV appears heterogeneous across the African countries surveyed. Exposure is not sufficient to trigger disease: viral and host molecular characteristics and compatibility are fundamental factors to establish infection. A successful species jump is achieved when the pathogen becomes transmissible between individuals within the new host population. To spread efficiently, HIV likely required changes in human behavior. Given the increasing exposure to NHP pathogens through hunting and butchering, it is likely that SIV and other simian viruses are still transmitted to the human population. The behavioral and socio-economic context of the twenty-first century provides favorable conditions for the emergence and spread of new epidemics. Therefore, it is important to evaluate which retroviruses the human population is exposed to and to better understand how these viruses enter, infect, adapt and spread to its new host.
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McFarlane R, Sleigh A, McMichael T. Synanthropy of wild mammals as a determinant of emerging infectious diseases in the Asian-Australasian region. ECOHEALTH 2012; 9:24-35. [PMID: 22526750 PMCID: PMC7088064 DOI: 10.1007/s10393-012-0763-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2010] [Revised: 03/20/2012] [Accepted: 03/26/2012] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Humans create ecologically simplified landscapes that favour some wildlife species, but not others. Here, we explore the possibility that those species that tolerate or do well in human-modified environments, or 'synanthropic' species, are predominantly the hosts of zoonotic emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases (EIDs). We do this using global wildlife conservation data and wildlife host information extracted from systematically reviewed emerging infectious disease literature. The evidence for this relationship is examined with special emphasis on the Australasian, South East Asian and East Asian regions. We find that synanthropic wildlife hosts are approximately 15 times more likely than other wildlife in this region to be the source of emerging infectious diseases, and this association is essentially independent of the taxonomy of the species. A significant positive association with EIDs is also evident for those wildlife species of low conservation risk. Since the increase and spread of native and introduced species able to adapt to human-induced landscape change is at the expense of those species most vulnerable to habitat loss, our findings suggest a mechanism linking land conversion, global decline in biodiversity and a rise in EIDs of wildlife origin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ro McFarlane
- National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health, ANU College of Medicine, Biology and Environment, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
| | - Adrian Sleigh
- National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health, ANU College of Medicine, Biology and Environment, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
| | - Tony McMichael
- National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health, ANU College of Medicine, Biology and Environment, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
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Cross-species transmission of simian foamy virus to humans in rural Gabon, Central Africa. J Virol 2011; 86:1255-60. [PMID: 22072747 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.06016-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
In order to characterize simian foamy retroviruses (SFVs) in wild-born nonhuman primates (NHPs) in Gabon and to investigate cross-species transmission to humans, we obtained 497 NHP samples, composed of 286 blood and 211 tissue (bush meat) samples. Anti-SFV antibodies were found in 31 of 286 plasma samples (10.5%). The integrase gene sequence was found in 38/497 samples, including both blood and tissue samples, with novel SFVs in several Cercopithecus species. Of the 78 humans, mostly hunters, who had been bitten or scratched by NHPs, 19 were SFV seropositive, with 15 cases confirmed by PCR. All but one were infected with ape SFV. We thus found novel SFV strains in NHPs in Gabon and high cross-species transmission of SFVs from gorilla bites.
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Betsem E, Rua R, Tortevoye P, Froment A, Gessain A. Frequent and recent human acquisition of simian foamy viruses through apes' bites in central Africa. PLoS Pathog 2011; 7:e1002306. [PMID: 22046126 PMCID: PMC3203161 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1002306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2011] [Accepted: 08/24/2011] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Human infection by simian foamy viruses (SFV) can be acquired by persons occupationally exposed to non-human primates (NHP) or in natural settings. This study aimed at getting better knowledge on SFV transmission dynamics, risk factors for such a zoonotic infection and, searching for intra-familial dissemination and the level of peripheral blood (pro)viral loads in infected individuals. We studied 1,321 people from the general adult population (mean age 49 yrs, 640 women and 681 men) and 198 individuals, mostly men, all of whom had encountered a NHP with a resulting bite or scratch. All of these, either Pygmies (436) or Bantus (1085) live in villages in South Cameroon. A specific SFV Western blot was used and two nested PCRs (polymerase, and LTR) were done on all the positive/borderline samples by serology. In the general population, 2/1,321 (0.2%) persons were found to be infected. In the second group, 37/198 (18.6%) persons were SFV positive. They were mostly infected by apes (37/39) FV (mainly gorilla). Infection by monkey FV was less frequent (2/39). The viral origin of the amplified sequences matched with the history reported by the hunters, most of which (83%) are aged 20 to 40 years and acquired the infection during the last twenty years. The (pro)viral load in 33 individuals infected by a gorilla FV was quite low (<1 to 145 copies per 105 cells) in the peripheral blood leucocytes. Of the 30 wives and 12 children from families of FV infected persons, only one woman was seropositive in WB without subsequent viral DNA amplification. We demonstrate a high level of recent transmission of SFVs to humans in natural settings specifically following severe gorilla bites during hunting activities. The virus was found to persist over several years, with low SFV loads in infected persons. Secondary transmission remains an open question. Most of the viral pathogens that have emerged in humans during the last decades have a zoonotic origin. After the initial interspecies transmission, these viruses have followed different evolutionary routes and have spread among humans through distinct mechanisms. The understanding of the initial steps of the emergence of several viruses and associated diseases often remains quite poor. Human infection by simian foamy viruses (SFV) can be acquired by persons occupationally exposed to non-human primates (NHP) or in natural settings. Epidemiological and microbiological studies in specific high-risk populations are necessary to gain new insights into the early events of the emergence process, and the potential to spread or cause disease among humans. The present study found that hunting is still a very common and risky activity for SFV infection in forest areas of South Cameroon. Indeed, recent interspecies transmission of SFVs to young adults is still very frequent, as 1 person out of 5 among the hunters who have reported a bite or scratch by a non-human primate and 2 persons out of a thousand in the general population are persistently infected by a SFV, mostly from an ape. Secondary transmission to other family members and presence of a disease in infected persons are still open questions that are being investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edouard Betsem
- Unit of Epidemiology and Pathophysiology of Oncogenic Viruses, Department of Virology, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), URA 3015, Paris, France
- Faculty of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Yaounde I, Yaounde, Cameroun
- * E-mail: (AG); (EB)
| | - Réjane Rua
- Unit of Epidemiology and Pathophysiology of Oncogenic Viruses, Department of Virology, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), URA 3015, Paris, France
| | - Patricia Tortevoye
- Unit of Epidemiology and Pathophysiology of Oncogenic Viruses, Department of Virology, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), URA 3015, Paris, France
| | - Alain Froment
- Institute of Research for Development, Musée de l'Homme, Paris, France
| | - Antoine Gessain
- Unit of Epidemiology and Pathophysiology of Oncogenic Viruses, Department of Virology, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), URA 3015, Paris, France
- * E-mail: (AG); (EB)
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Engel GA, Jones-Engel L. Primates and primatologists: social contexts for interspecies pathogen transmission. Am J Primatol 2011; 74:543-50. [PMID: 21932331 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.20988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2011] [Revised: 07/25/2011] [Accepted: 07/26/2011] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Humans and nonhuman primates (NHP) interact in a variety of contexts. The frequency, duration, and intensity of interspecies interaction influence the likelihood that contact results in cross-species transmission of infectious agents. In this study, we present results of a cross-sectional survey of attendees at a national conference of primatologists, characterizing their occupational exposures to NHP. Of 116 individuals who participated in the study, 68.1% reported having worked with NHP in a field setting, 68.1% in a laboratory setting, and 24.1% at a zoo or animal sanctuary. Most subjects (N=98, 84.5%) reported having worked with multiple NHP taxa, including 46 (39.7%) who had worked with more than five distinct taxa. Sixty-nine subjects (59.5%) recalled having been scratched by a NHP and 48 (41.1%) had been bitten; 32 subjects reporting being bitten more than once. Eleven subjects (9.5%) reported having been injured by a needle containing NHP tissue or body fluids. We conclude that primatologists are at high risk for exposure to NHP-borne infectious agents. Furthermore, primatologists' varied occupational activities often bring them into contact with multiple NHP species in diverse contexts and geographic areas, over extended periods of time, making them a unique population with respect to zoonotic and anthropozoonotic disease risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- G A Engel
- Swedish/Cherry Hill Family Medicine, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA
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The infectious diseases consequences of monkey business. CANADIAN JOURNAL OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES & MEDICAL MICROBIOLOGY 2011; 19:12-4. [PMID: 19145260 DOI: 10.1155/2008/970372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2008] [Accepted: 01/22/2008] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Gautret P, Lim PL, Shaw M, Leder K. Rabies post-exposure prophylaxis in travellers returning from Bali, Indonesia, November 2008 to March 2010. Clin Microbiol Infect 2011; 17:445-7. [PMID: 20491825 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-0691.2010.03271.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Since 2008, when the outbreak of rabies in Bali began, 45 patients have attended GeoSentinel or EuroTravNet sites for rabies post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP), representing 12.6% of all travellers seen for PEP in all network clinics during the same time period. This suggests that Bali is emerging as a commonly visited destination among travellers presenting for rabies PEP. The data demonstrate that the majority of animal-related injuries in travellers returning from Bali are associated with exposure to monkeys, and not dog bites/scratches. The clinical implications of this are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Gautret
- Hôpital Nord, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Marseille, Marseille, France.
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58
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Abstract
Recent and long-term sympatries between humans and nonhuman primates (hereafter primates) are central to the behavioral ecology, conservation, and evolutionary trajectories of numerous primate species. Ethnoprimatology emphasizes that interconnections between humans and primates should be viewed as more than just disruptions of a "natural" state, and instead anthropogenic contexts must be considered as potential drivers for specific primate behavioral patterns. Rather than focusing solely on the behavior and ecology of the primate species at hand, as in traditional primatology, or on the symbolic meanings and uses of primates, as in socio-cultural anthropology, ethnoprimatology attempts to merge these perspectives into a more integrative approach. As human pressures on environments continue to increase and primate habitats become smaller and more fragmented, the need for a primatology that considers the impact of human attitudes and behavior on all aspects of primate lives and survival is imperative. In this special issue, we present both data-driven examples and more general discussions that describe how ethnoprimatological approaches can be both a contribution to the core theory and practice of primatology and a powerful tool in our goal of conservation action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agustin Fuentes
- Department of Anthropology, University of Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA.
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59
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Mouinga-Ondémé A, Betsem E, Caron M, Makuwa M, Sallé B, Renault N, Saib A, Telfer P, Marx P, Gessain A, Kazanji M. Two distinct variants of simian foamy virus in naturally infected mandrills (Mandrillus sphinx) and cross-species transmission to humans. Retrovirology 2010; 7:105. [PMID: 21156043 PMCID: PMC3009703 DOI: 10.1186/1742-4690-7-105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2010] [Accepted: 12/14/2010] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Each of the pathogenic human retroviruses (HIV-1/2 and HTLV-1) has a nonhuman primate counterpart, and the presence of these retroviruses in humans results from interspecies transmission. The passage of another simian retrovirus, simian foamy virus (SFV), from apes or monkeys to humans has been reported. Mandrillus sphinx, a monkey species living in central Africa, is naturally infected with SFV. We evaluated the natural history of the virus in a free-ranging colony of mandrills and investigated possible transmission of mandrill SFV to humans. Results We studied 84 semi-free-ranging captive mandrills at the Primate Centre of the Centre International de Recherches Médicales de Franceville (Gabon) and 15 wild mandrills caught in various areas of the country. The presence of SFV was also evaluated in 20 people who worked closely with mandrills and other nonhuman primates. SFV infection was determined by specific serological (Western blot) and molecular (nested PCR of the integrase region in the polymerase gene) assays. Seropositivity for SFV was found in 70/84 (83%) captive and 9/15 (60%) wild-caught mandrills and in 2/20 (10%) humans. The 425-bp SFV integrase fragment was detected in peripheral blood DNA from 53 captive and 8 wild-caught mandrills and in two personnel. Sequence and phylogenetic studies demonstrated the presence of two distinct strains of mandrill SFV, one clade including SFVs from mandrills living in the northern part of Gabon and the second consisting of SFV from animals living in the south. One man who had been bitten 10 years earlier by a mandrill and another bitten 22 years earlier by a macaque were found to be SFV infected, both at the Primate Centre. The second man had a sequence close to SFVmac sequences. Comparative sequence analysis of the virus from the first man and from the mandrill showed nearly identical sequences, indicating genetic stability of SFV over time. Conclusion Our results show a high prevalence of SFV infection in a semi-free-ranging colony of mandrills, with the presence of two different strains. We also showed transmission of SFV from a mandrill and a macaque to humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Augustin Mouinga-Ondémé
- Unité de Rétrovirologie, Centre International de Recherches Médicales de Franceville, Franceville, Gabon
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Fedigan LM. Ethical issues faced by field primatologists: asking the relevant questions. Am J Primatol 2010; 72:754-71. [PMID: 20213821 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.20814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Field primatologists face unusual ethical issues. We study animals rather than people and receive research approval from animal care rather than ethics committees. However, animal care evaluation forms are developed from concerns about laboratory animal research and are based on the "Three R's" for humane treatment of captive experimental subjects (replacement, reduction and refinement), which are only debatably relevant to field research. Scientists who study wild, free-ranging primates in host countries experience many ethical dilemmas seldom dealt with in animal care forms. This paper reviews the ethical issues many field primatologists say they face and how these might be better addressed by animal care forms. The ethical issues arising for field researchers are divided into three categories: "Presence, Protocols and People" and for each the most frequent issues are described. The most commonly mentioned ethical concern arising from our presence in the field is the possibility of disease transmission. Although most primate field studies employ only observational protocols, the practice of habituating our study animals to close human presence is an ethical concern for many since it can lessen the animals' fear of all humans, thereby facilitating undesirable behaviors (e.g., crop-raiding) and rendering them vulnerable to harm. Field primatologists who work in host countries must observe national laws and local traditions. As conservationists, primatologists must often negotiate between the resource needs and cultural practices of local people and the interests of the nonhuman primates. Many say they face more ethical dilemmas arising from human interactions than from research on the animals per se. This review concludes with suggestions for relevant questions to ask on animal care forms, and actions that field primatologists can take to better inform animal care committees about the common ethical issues we experience as well as how to develop guidelines for addressing them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda Marie Fedigan
- Department of Anthropology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.
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61
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FUENTES AGUSTÍN. NATURALCULTURAL ENCOUNTERS IN BALI: Monkeys, Temples, Tourists, and Ethnoprimatology. CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2010. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1548-1360.2010.01071.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 144] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
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Muehlenbein MP, Martinez LA, Lemke AA, Ambu L, Nathan S, Alsisto S, Sakong R. Unhealthy travelers present challenges to sustainable primate ecotourism. Travel Med Infect Dis 2010; 8:169-75. [PMID: 20541137 DOI: 10.1016/j.tmaid.2010.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2009] [Revised: 02/23/2010] [Accepted: 03/17/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ecotourism can function as a powerful tool for species conservation. However, a significant proportion of travelers at wildlife sanctuaries may be ill and potentially infectious, creating unnecessary risk of pathogen transmission to wildlife. METHODS A questionnaire was distributed to adult visitors at the Sepilok Orangutan Rehabilitation Centre, Sabah, Malaysia. The questionnaire recorded age, occupation, region of origin, history of recent travel, recent contact with livestock, domestic and wild animals, and diagnoses/symptoms of various infections. RESULTS 15% of the 633 tourists self-reported at least one of the following current symptoms: cough, sore throat, congestion, fever, diarrhea and vomiting. Participants who reported recent animal contact were significantly more likely to report current respiratory symptoms compared to other participants. Likewise, participants with a medical-related occupation were more likely to report current respiratory symptoms while at Sepilok compared to other participants. CONCLUSIONS Despite being ill and potentially infectious, these tourists were visiting a wildlife sanctuary to view endangered species. Many of these visitors had animal contact immediately prior to arriving, and many had at least some basic knowledge about infection transmission. While participants in nature-based tourism are generally concerned about environmental protection, present analyses suggest that a significant proportion of ecotourists are uninformed of the risks they may pose to non-human animal health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael P Muehlenbein
- Department of Anthropology, Indiana University, 701 E. Kirkwood Ave., Student Building 130, Bloomington, IN 47405-7000, USA.
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63
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Engel G, O’Hara TM, Cardona-Marek T, Heidrich J, Chalise MK, Kyes R, Jones-Engel L. Synanthropic primates in Asia: potential sentinels for environmental toxins. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2010; 142:453-60. [PMID: 20033917 PMCID: PMC2901096 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.21247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Macaques are similar to humans both physiologically and behaviorally. In South and Southeast Asia they are also synanthropic, ecologically associated with humans. Synanthropy with humans raises the possibility that macaques come into contact with anthropogenic toxicants, such as lead and mercury, and might be appropriate sentinels for human exposures to certain toxic materials. We measured lead (Pb) and mercury (Hg) levels and characterized the stable isotopic compositions of delta(15)N and delta(13)C in hair from three groups of free-ranging macaques at the Swoyambhu temple in Kathmandhu, Nepal, an urban population that has abundant contact with humans. Hair lead levels were significantly higher among young macaques and differed among the three groups of macaques that were sampled. Hair Hg levels were low. No statistical association was found between stable isotopic compositions (delta(15)N and delta(13)C) and Pb and Hg levels. Our data did not find evidence that lead levels were associated with diet. We conclude that, in this population of macaques, behavioral and/or physiologic factors may play a significant role in determining exposure to lead. Chemical analysis of hair is a promising, noninvasive technique for determining exposure to toxic elements in free-ranging nonhuman primates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory Engel
- Swedish Cherry Hill, Family Medicine
- University of Washington, National Primate Research Center
| | - Todd M. O’Hara
- University of Alaska, Fairbanks, Institute of Arctic Wildlife
| | | | | | | | - Randall Kyes
- University of Washington, National Primate Research Center
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64
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Ren Z, Wang J, Zou C, Guan Y, Zhang YA. Comparative characterization of mesenchymal stem cells from different age groups of cynomolgus monkeys. SCIENCE CHINA-LIFE SCIENCES 2010; 53:563-72. [PMID: 20596939 DOI: 10.1007/s11427-010-0083-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2010] [Accepted: 02/24/2010] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BM-MSCs) are a potential tool for cell therapy and tissue engineering. In this study, we carried on a comparative study of the characteristics of MSCs from different age cynomolgus monkeys. A variety of factors, including donor age, must be considered before further applications, and various tests should be used to properly assess MSCs before the clinical application, especially when a prolonged culture and ex vivo expansion is necessary.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenhua Ren
- Cell Therapy Center, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, and Key Laboratory of Neurodegeneration, Ministry of Education, Beijing, 100053, China
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Abstract
One of the most fascinating areas in retrovirology is the study of foamy viruses (FVs), because these viruses appear to do everything that is common to all other retroviruses differently. FVs have found a completely new way to propagate their genome. And they do this extremely successfully because most of wild non-human primates, felines, bovines, equines, and small ruminants are likely to be non-pathogenically infected. The success of FVs can also be viewed from a different angle, since they replicate very conservatively and do not need to shape their genotypic and phenotypic makeup every now and then. The elucidation of the underlying basic mechanisms of the FV replication strategy is the topic of this review.
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67
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68
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Infectious Disease Scenarios. HUMAN-ANIMAL MEDICINE 2010. [PMCID: PMC7156012 DOI: 10.1016/b978-1-4160-6837-2.00010-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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69
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Williams DK, Khan AS. Role of neutralizing antibodies in controlling simian foamy virus transmission and infection. Transfusion 2010; 50:200-7. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1537-2995.2009.02372.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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70
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Villarreal LP. The source of self: genetic parasites and the origin of adaptive immunity. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2009; 1178:194-232. [PMID: 19845639 DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.05020.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Stable colonization of the host by viruses (genetic parasites) can alter the systems of host identity and provide immunity against related viruses. To attain the needed stability, some viruses of prokaryotes (P1 phage) use a strategy called an addiction module. The linked protective and destructive gene functions of an addiction module insures both virus persistence but will also destroy cells that interrupt this module and thereby prevent infection by competitors. Previously, I have generalized this concept to also include persistent and lytic states of virus infection, which can be considered as a virus addiction module. Such states often involve defective viruses. In this report, I examine the origin of the adaptive immune system from the perspective of a virus addiction module. The likely role of both endogenous and exogenous retroviruses, DNA viruses, and their defective elements is considered in the origin of all the basal components of adaptive immunity (T-cell receptor, RAG-mediated gene rearrangement, clonal lymphocyte proliferation, antigen surface presentation, apoptosis, and education of immune cells). It is concluded that colonization by viruses and their defectives provides a more coherent explanation for the origin of adaptive immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis P Villarreal
- Center for Virus Research, Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California, Irvine, California 92697, USA.
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71
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Khan AS. Simian foamy virus infection in humans: prevalence and management. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2009; 7:569-80. [PMID: 19485797 DOI: 10.1586/eri.09.39] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Simian foamy viruses (SFVs) are highly prevalent in all nonhuman primate species and can infect humans following occupational and non-occupational exposure to infected animals and their tissues, blood or body fluids. Virus transmission results in a stable, persistent infection that seems to be latent. SFV infections are thus far nonpathogenic, with no evidence of adverse clinical outcome in their natural nonhuman primate hosts or by experimental injection in animals and upon cross-species transmission in humans. Since the emergence of pathogenic viruses from nonpathogenic viruses upon cross-species infection is well-documented for several retroviruses, it is prudent to take necessary precautions to deter SFV infections in humans. These steps will help prevent the emergence of a novel pathogen and reduce the risk of transmission of another potential pathogenic human retrovirus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arifa S Khan
- Laboratory of Retrovirus Research, Division of Viral Products, Center for Biologics Evaluation & Research, US Food & Drug Administration, 8800 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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72
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Muehlenbein MP, Ancrenaz M. Minimizing pathogen transmission at primate ecotourism destinations: the need for input from travel medicine. J Travel Med 2009; 16:229-32. [PMID: 19674260 DOI: 10.1111/j.1708-8305.2009.00346.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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Hsu MJ, Kao CC, Agoramoorthy G. Interactions between visitors and Formosan macaques (Macaca cyclopis) at Shou-Shan Nature Park, Taiwan. Am J Primatol 2009; 71:214-22. [PMID: 19051313 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.20638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Ecotourism involving feeding wildlife has raised public attention and is a controversial issue, especially concerning nonhuman primates. Between July 2002 and April 2005, the behavior of monkeys and tourists was collected through scan samplings, focal samplings and behavior samplings at the Shou-Shan Nature Park located in Taiwan's second largest city--Kaohsiung. In addition, the number of tourists and monkeys was counted in different hours and places within the park. Four hundred visitors were interviewed using a questionnaire to gather data on sex, age, purpose and frequency of visit to the park. The number of tourists was significantly higher during weekends than in weekdays in all locations. Humans dominated in the initiation of interspecies interactions--the overall ratio of human-initiated and monkey-initiated interactions was 2.44:1. Human-monkey conflicts accounted for only 16.4% of the total interactions (n=2,166), and adult human males and adult male macaques participated in higher rates than other age/sex groups in these conflicts. Visitors showed more affiliative behavior (15.9%) than agonistic behavior (8%) toward the macaques. In response to visitors' threat or attack, the Formosan macaques mostly showed submissive behavior with bared teeth, squealed or ran away to avoid confrontation (69.1%)--only few responded with counteraggression (18.7%). This study for the first time provided evidence that food provisioning increased both the frequency and duration of aggression among Formosan macaques (P<0.001). During food provisioning, the average frequency and the duration of agonistic events of macaques were more than 4 times higher compared with those without food provisioning. The average frequency of food provision by tourists was 0.73 times/hr--more than twice the incident that monkeys grabbed the food from tourists (0.34 times/hr). If people refrain from feeding monkeys and destroying the city park's natural vegetation, monkeys can be used to educate public about nature conservation in an urban setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minna J Hsu
- Department of Biological Sciences, National Sun Yat-Sen University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
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74
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Morozov VA, Leendertz FH, Junglen S, Boesch C, Pauli G, Ellerbrok H. Frequent foamy virus infection in free-living chimpanzees of the Taï National Park (Côte d'Ivoire). J Gen Virol 2009; 90:500-506. [PMID: 19141461 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.003939-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Foamy viruses are frequently found in non-human primates and apes in captivity. However, data on simian foamy virus (SFV) infection in apes from the wild are limited. Necropsy specimens were collected from 14 West African chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) from three communities in the Taï National Park, Côte d'Ivoire. PCR analysis revealed SFV-related int- and env-specific sequences in 12/14 chimpanzees. Two young chimpanzees were not infected. Plasma from 'PCR-positive' chimpanzees reacted against Pr71/74(gag) in Western blot analysis. Phylogenetic analysis demonstrated clustering of all analysed sequences with SFVcpz previously identified from the other P. troglodytes verus, although interestingly the sequences were diverse and no grouping according to a particular animal community was observed. The body compartments of two infected animals were examined and found to contain SFV sequences. Frequent SFV infections in chimpanzees from this area significantly increase the potential risk of zoonotic transmission to rural populations through direct contact, hunting and consumption of bush meat.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Fabian H Leendertz
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, 6 Deutscher Platz, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.,Robert Koch Institute, 20 Nordufer, 13353 Berlin, Germany
| | - Sandra Junglen
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, 6 Deutscher Platz, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.,Robert Koch Institute, 20 Nordufer, 13353 Berlin, Germany
| | - Christophe Boesch
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, 6 Deutscher Platz, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Georg Pauli
- Robert Koch Institute, 20 Nordufer, 13353 Berlin, Germany
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75
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Jones-Engel L, May CC, Engel GA, Steinkraus KA, Schillaci MA, Fuentes A, Rompis A, Chalise MK, Aggimarangsee N, Feeroz MM, Grant R, Allan JS, Putra A, Wandia IN, Watanabe R, Kuller L, Thongsawat S, Chaiwarith R, Kyes RC, Linial ML. Diverse contexts of zoonotic transmission of simian foamy viruses in Asia. Emerg Infect Dis 2008; 14:1200-8. [PMID: 18680642 PMCID: PMC2562341 DOI: 10.3201/eid1408.071430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
These infections are likely prevalent among persons who live or work near nonhuman primates. In Asia, contact between persons and nonhuman primates is widespread in multiple occupational and nonoccupational contexts. Simian foamy viruses (SFVs) are retroviruses that are prevalent in all species of nonhuman primates. To determine SFV prevalence in humans, we tested 305 persons who lived or worked around nonhuman primates in several South and Southeast Asian countries; 8 (2.6%) were confirmed SFV positive by Western blot and, for some, by PCR. The interspecies interactions that likely resulted in virus transmission were diverse; 5 macaque taxa were implicated as a potential source of infection. Phylogenetic analysis showed that SFV from 3 infected persons was similar to that from the nonhuman primate populations with which the infected persons reported contact. Thus, SFV infections are likely to be prevalent among persons who live or work near nonhuman primates in Asia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Jones-Engel
- Division of International Programs, National Primate Research Center, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA.
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76
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Fuentes A, Kalchik S, Gettler L, Kwiatt A, Konecki M, Jones-Engel L. Characterizing human-macaque interactions in Singapore. Am J Primatol 2008; 70:879-83. [PMID: 18521871 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.20575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Previous studies have noted substantial human-macaque interactions involving physical contact in Bali, Indonesia; Gibraltar; and Mt. Emei, China [Fuentes, American Journal of Primatology 68:880-896, 2006; Zhao, Tibetan macaques, visitors, and local people at Mt. Emei: problems and countermeasures. In: Paterson and Wallis, editor. Commensalism and conflict: the human-primate interface. Norman, OK: American Society of Primatologists. p 376-399, 2005]. The aim of this study was to conduct preliminary observations in order to begin to characterize interaction patterns between humans and long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) in Singapore. Unlike Bali, Gibraltar, and Mt. Emei, Singapore occasionally enforces fines and penalties and engages in an education campaign in an effort to minimize physical contact between humans and macaques. Observers stationed at two sites in Singapore conducted 92 5 hr of observation that included 730 human-macaque interactions over 16 days. Data recorded include interaction characteristics, demographic and behavioral variables, presence of feeding by humans, and presence of automobiles. Although feeding by humans was relatively infrequent overall, it generally occurred most often by individuals in cars and when human children were present. Data analysis suggests that interactions involving physical contact between macaques and humans are rare in Singapore, in contrast to the findings from Bali, Gibraltar, and Mt. Emei. This low level of physical contact suggests a low risk of macaque-human pathogen transmission in Singapore.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agustín Fuentes
- Department of Anthropology, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana.
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77
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Faure E. Could FIV zoonosis responsible of the breakdown of the pathocenosis which has reduced the European CCR5-Delta32 allele frequencies? Virol J 2008; 5:119. [PMID: 18925940 PMCID: PMC2575341 DOI: 10.1186/1743-422x-5-119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2008] [Accepted: 10/16/2008] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Background In Europe, the north-south downhill cline frequency of the chemokine receptor CCR5 allele with a 32-bp deletion (CCR5-Δ32) raises interesting questions for evolutionary biologists. We had suggested first that, in the past, the European colonizers, principally Romans, might have been instrumental of a progressively decrease of the frequencies southwards. Indeed, statistical analyses suggested strong negative correlations between the allele frequency and historical parameters including the colonization dates by Mediterranean civilisations. The gene flows from colonizers to native populations were extremely low but colonizers are responsible of the spread of several diseases suggesting that the dissemination of parasites in naive populations could have induced a breakdown rupture of the fragile pathocenosis changing the balance among diseases. The new equilibrium state has been reached through a negative selection of the null allele. Results Most of the human diseases are zoonoses and cat might have been instrumental in the decrease of the allele frequency, because its diffusion through Europe was a gradual process, due principally to Romans; and that several cat zoonoses could be transmitted to man. The possible implication of a feline lentivirus (FIV) which does not use CCR5 as co-receptor is discussed. This virus can infect primate cells in vitro and induces clinical signs in macaque. Moreover, most of the historical regions with null or low frequency of CCR5-Δ32 allele coincide with historical range of the wild felid species which harbor species-specific FIVs. Conclusion We proposed the hypothesis that the actual European CCR5 allelic frequencies are the result of a negative selection due to a disease spreading. A cat zoonosis, could be the most plausible hypothesis. Future studies could provide if CCR5 can play an antimicrobial role in FIV pathogenesis. Moreover, studies of ancient DNA could provide more evidences regarding the implications of zoonoses in the actual CCR5-Δ32 distribution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Faure
- LATP, CNRS-UMR 6632, IFR48 Infectiopole, Evolution biologique et modélisation, Université de Provence, Marseille, France.
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78
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Greger M. The Human/Animal Interface: Emergence and Resurgence of Zoonotic Infectious Diseases. Crit Rev Microbiol 2008; 33:243-99. [DOI: 10.1080/10408410701647594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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79
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Engel GA, Pizarro M, Shaw E, Cortes J, Fuentes A, Barry P, Lerche N, Grant R, Cohn D, Jones-Engel L. Unique pattern of enzootic primate viruses in Gibraltar macaques. Emerg Infect Dis 2008; 14:1112-5. [PMID: 18598634 PMCID: PMC2600335 DOI: 10.3201/eid1407.071643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Because Gibraltar's macaques (Macaca sylvanus) have frequent contact with humans, we assayed 79 macaques for antibodies to enzootic primate viruses. All macaques were seronegative for herpesvirus B, simian T-cell lymphotropic virus, simian retrovirus, simian immunodeficiency virus, and rhesus cytomegalovirus. Seroprevalence of simian foamy virus reached 88% among adult animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory A Engel
- University of Washington National Primate Research Center, Seattle, Washington, USA
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80
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Nix WA, Jiang B, Maher K, Strobert E, Oberste MS. Identification of enteroviruses in naturally infected captive primates. J Clin Microbiol 2008; 46:2874-8. [PMID: 18596147 PMCID: PMC2546737 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.00074-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2008] [Revised: 03/06/2008] [Accepted: 06/22/2008] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
In a recent study, we investigated cases of diarrheal disease among monkeys at a U.S. primate center. In that study, enteroviruses were detected in a high proportion of the fecal specimens tested. To determine whether the enterovirus detections represented the circulation of one or more simian enteroviruses within the colony or the transmission of human enteroviruses from animal handlers, we determined in the present study the serotype identity of each virus by reverse transcription-PCR and sequencing of a portion of the VP1 gene, a region whose sequence corresponds to antigenic type. Enteroviruses were identified in 37 of 56 specimens (66%), 30 of 40 rhesus macaques, 5 of 11 pigtail macaques, 2 of 4 sooty mangabeys, and 0 of 1 chimpanzee. No previously known human viruses were detected. Three previously known simian enterovirus serotypes--SV6, SV19, and SV46--were among the viruses identified, but more than half of the identified viruses were previously unknown; these have been assigned as new types: EV92 and EV103.
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Affiliation(s)
- W Allan Nix
- Division of Viral Diseases, Polio and Picornavirus Laboratory Branch, Gastroenteritis and Respiratory Virus Laboratory Branch, National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA
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81
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Abstract
Macaques have served as models for more than 70 human infectious diseases of diverse etiologies, including a multitude of agents—bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, prions. The remarkable diversity of human infectious diseases that have been modeled in the macaque includes global, childhood, and tropical diseases as well as newly emergent, sexually transmitted, oncogenic, degenerative neurologic, potential bioterrorism, and miscellaneous other diseases. Historically, macaques played a major role in establishing the etiology of yellow fever, polio, and prion diseases. With rare exceptions (Chagas disease, bartonellosis), all of the infectious diseases in this review are of Old World origin. Perhaps most surprising is the large number of tropical (16), newly emergent (7), and bioterrorism diseases (9) that have been modeled in macaques. Many of these human diseases (e.g., AIDS, hepatitis E, bartonellosis) are a consequence of zoonotic infection. However, infectious agents of certain diseases, including measles and tuberculosis, can sometimes go both ways, and thus several human pathogens are threats to nonhuman primates including macaques. Through experimental studies in macaques, researchers have gained insight into pathogenic mechanisms and novel treatment and vaccine approaches for many human infectious diseases, most notably acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), which is caused by infection with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Other infectious agents for which macaques have been a uniquely valuable resource for biomedical research, and particularly vaccinology, include influenza virus, paramyxoviruses, flaviviruses, arenaviruses, hepatitis E virus, papillomavirus, smallpox virus, Mycobacteria, Bacillus anthracis, Helicobacter pylori, Yersinia pestis, and Plasmodium species. This review summarizes the extensive past and present research on macaque models of human infectious disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Murray B Gardner
- Center for Comparative Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
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82
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Engel GA, Pizarro M, Shaw E, Cortes J, Fuentes A, Barry P, Lerche N, Grant R, Cohn D, Jones-Engel L. Unique Pattern of Enzootic Primate Viruses in Gibraltar Macaques. Emerg Infect Dis 2008. [DOI: 10.3201/eid1407.071673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Gregory A. Engel
- University of Washington National Primate Research Center, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | | | - Eric Shaw
- Gibraltar Ornithological and Natural History Society, Gibraltar
| | - John Cortes
- Gibraltar Ornithological and Natural History Society, Gibraltar
| | | | - Peter Barry
- University of California, Davis, California, USA
| | | | - Richard Grant
- University of Washington National Primate Research Center, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | | | - Lisa Jones-Engel
- University of Washington National Primate Research Center, Seattle, Washington, USA
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83
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LeBreton M, Yang O, Tamoufe U, Mpoudi-Ngole E, Torimiro JN, Djoko CF, Carr JK, Tassy Prosser A, Rimoin AW, Birx DL, Burke DS, Wolfe ND. Exposure to wild primates among HIV-infected persons. Emerg Infect Dis 2008; 13:1579-82. [PMID: 18258013 DOI: 10.3201/eid1310.070338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
HIV-1 is an immunosuppressive pathogen. Our behavioral data for 191 HIV-1-infected rural Cameroonians show frequent exposure to nonhuman primates through activities such as hunting and butchering. Immunosuppression among persons exposed to body fluids of wild nonhuman primates could favor the process of adaptation and subsequent emergence of zoonotic pathogens.
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84
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Abstract
Simian foamy viruses (SFV) are ancient retroviruses of primates and have coevolved with their host species for as many as 30 million years. Although humans are not naturally infected with foamy virus, infection is occasionally acquired through interspecies transmission from nonhuman primates. We show that interspecies transmissions occur in a natural hunter-prey system, i.e., between wild chimpanzees and colobus monkeys, both of which harbor their own species-specific strains of SFV. Chimpanzees infected with chimpanzee SFV strains were shown to be coinfected with SFV from colobus monkeys, indicating that apes are susceptible to SFV superinfection, including highly divergent strains from other primate species.
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85
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Calattini S, Betsem EBA, Froment A, Mauclère P, Tortevoye P, Schmitt C, Njouom R, Saib A, Gessain A. Simian foamy virus transmission from apes to humans, rural Cameroon. Emerg Infect Dis 2008; 13:1314-20. [PMID: 18252101 PMCID: PMC2857270 DOI: 10.3201/eid1309.061162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Bites from apes efficiently transmit the foamy virus to humans in natural settings in central Africa. Simian virus infections of humans are an increasing public health concern. Simian foamy virus (SFV) infections have been reported in persons occupationally exposed to nonhuman primates and in a few hunters in Cameroon. To better understand this retroviral zoonosis in natural settings, we studied persons who lived in southern Cameroon, near nonhuman primate habitats. First we studied a general population of 1,164 adults; 4 were SFV positive according to serologic and molecular assays. Then we studied 85 persons who reported having been bitten or scratched by nonhuman primates; 7/29 (24.1%) of those who had contact with apes (gorillas or chimpanzees) were SFV positive, compared with only 2/56 (3.6%) of those who had had contact with monkeys. These data demonstrate efficient transmission of SFVs to humans in natural settings in central Africa, specifically following ape bites, and viral persistence in the human host.
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86
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Lerche NW, Simmons JH. Beyond specific pathogen-free: biology and effect of common viruses in macaques. Comp Med 2008; 58:8-10. [PMID: 19793451 PMCID: PMC2703162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Macaque models have contributed to key advances in our basic knowledge of behavior, anatomy, and physiology as well as to our understanding of a wide variety of human diseases. This issue of Comparative Medicine focuses on several of the viral agents (members of Retroviridae, Herpesviridae and 2 small DNA viruses) that can infect both nonhuman primates and humans as well as confound research studies. Featured articles also address the challenges of developing colonies of macaques and other nonhuman primates that are truly specific pathogen-free for these and other adventitious infectious agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas W Lerche
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, CA
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87
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Gessain A, Calattini S. Emergence of simian foamy viruses in humans: facts and unanswered questions. Future Virol 2008. [DOI: 10.2217/17460794.3.1.71] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
A large proportion of viral pathogens that have emerged in humans are considered to have originated in animals. Simian viral infections of humans represent an increasing public health concern. This is well illustrated by retroviruses such as HIV-1/2 and human T-cell lymphotropic virus (HTLV)-1, which have a unique ability to cross species, adapt to a new host and spread. In this short review, we will present the currently available data on the transmission of the simian foamy retroviruses (SFVs) to humans. Indeed, recent data indicate the presence of these exogenous retroviruses, of the Spumaretrovirinae subfamily and of the Spumavirus genus, in individuals occupationally exposed to nonhuman primates (animal caretaker, veterinarian, zoo worker) and in individuals having contact with apes and monkeys, such as hunters in Central Africa. The main unanswered questions concerning the natural history of such SFVs in humans, for instance, their magnitude and geographical distribution, their interhuman transmissibility and their disease association and pathogenicity are discussed in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antoine Gessain
- Unité d’Epidémiologie et Physiopathologie des Virus Oncogènes, CNRS URA 3015, Département de Virologie. Bâtiment Lwoff. Institut Pasteur, 25–28 rue du Dr. Roux, 75724, Paris, Cedex 15, France
| | - Sara Calattini
- Unité d’Epidémiologie et Physiopathologie des Virus Oncogènes, CNRS URA 3015, Département de Virologie. Bâtiment Lwoff. Institut Pasteur, 25–28 rue du Dr. Roux, 75724, Paris, Cedex 15, France. Laboratory of Clinical Infectious Diseases, Medical Virology Section, 10, Center Dr, Bethesda, MD, USA
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88
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Schillaci M, Jones-Engel L, Engel G, Fuentes A. Characterizing the threat to the blood supply associated with nonoccupational exposure to emerging simian retroviruses. Transfusion 2007; 48:398-401. [PMID: 18028266 DOI: 10.1111/j.1537-2995.2007.01536.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Michael Schillaci
- Department of Social Sciences, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
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89
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Boneva RS, Switzer WM, Spira TJ, Bhullar VB, Shanmugam V, Cong ME, Lam L, Heneine W, Folks TM, Chapman LE. Clinical and virological characterization of persistent human infection with simian foamy viruses. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2007; 23:1330-7. [PMID: 18184074 DOI: 10.1089/aid.2007.0104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Persons occupationally exposed to nonhuman primates (NHPs) can be persistently infected with simian foamy virus (SFV). The clinical significance and person-to-person transmissibility of zoonotic SFV infection is unclear. Seven SFV-infected men responded to annual structured interviews and provided whole blood, oral, and urogenital specimens for study. Wives were tested for SFV infection. Proviral DNA was consistently detected by PCR in PBMCs of infected men and inconsistently in oral or urogenital samples. SFV was infrequently cultured from their PBMCs and throat swabs. Despite this and a long period of intimate exposure (median 20 years), wives were SFV negative. Most participants reported nonspecific symptoms and diseases common to aging. However, one of two persons with mild thrombocytopenia had clinically asymptomatic nonprogressive, monoclonal natural killer cell lymphocytosis of unclear relationship to SFV. All participants worked with NHPs before 1988 using mucocutaneous protection inconsistently; 57% described percutaneous injuries involving the infecting NHP species. SFV likely transmits to humans through both percutaneous and mucocutaneous exposures to NHP body fluids. Limited follow-up has not identified SFV-associated illness and secondary transmission among humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roumiana S. Boneva
- HIV and Retrovirology Branch, Division of AIDS, STD and TB Laboratory Research (DASTLR), National Center for Infectious Diseases (NCID), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia 30333
- Chronic Viral Diseases Branch, Division of Viral and Rickettsial Diseases, National Center for Zoonotic, Vector-Borne and Enteric Diseases, Coordinating Center for Infectious Diseases (CCID), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia 30333
| | - William M. Switzer
- HIV and Retrovirology Branch, Division of AIDS, STD and TB Laboratory Research (DASTLR), National Center for Infectious Diseases (NCID), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia 30333
- Laboratory Branch, Division of HIV/AIDS Prevention, National Center for HIV, Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention (NCHH-STP), CCID, CDC, Atlanta, Georgia 30333
| | - Thomas J. Spira
- Immunology Branch, DASTLR, NCID, CDC, Atlanta, Georgia 30333
- International Laboratory Branch, Global AIDS Program, NCHHSTP, CCID, CDC, Atlanta, Georgia 30333
| | - Vinod B. Bhullar
- HIV and Retrovirology Branch, Division of AIDS, STD and TB Laboratory Research (DASTLR), National Center for Infectious Diseases (NCID), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia 30333
- National Center for Prevention, Detection and Containment of Infectious Diseases, CCID, CDC, Atlanta, Georgia 30333
| | - Vedapuri Shanmugam
- HIV and Retrovirology Branch, Division of AIDS, STD and TB Laboratory Research (DASTLR), National Center for Infectious Diseases (NCID), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia 30333
- International Laboratory Branch, Global AIDS Program, NCHHSTP, CCID, CDC, Atlanta, Georgia 30333
| | - Mian-Er Cong
- HIV and Retrovirology Branch, Division of AIDS, STD and TB Laboratory Research (DASTLR), National Center for Infectious Diseases (NCID), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia 30333
- Laboratory Branch, Division of HIV/AIDS Prevention, National Center for HIV, Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention (NCHH-STP), CCID, CDC, Atlanta, Georgia 30333
| | - Lee Lam
- Immunology Branch, DASTLR, NCID, CDC, Atlanta, Georgia 30333
- Office of the Director, NCHHSTP, CCID, CDC, Atlanta, Georgia 30333
| | - Walid Heneine
- HIV and Retrovirology Branch, Division of AIDS, STD and TB Laboratory Research (DASTLR), National Center for Infectious Diseases (NCID), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia 30333
- Laboratory Branch, Division of HIV/AIDS Prevention, National Center for HIV, Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention (NCHH-STP), CCID, CDC, Atlanta, Georgia 30333
| | - Thomas M. Folks
- HIV and Retrovirology Branch, Division of AIDS, STD and TB Laboratory Research (DASTLR), National Center for Infectious Diseases (NCID), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia 30333
- Laboratory Branch, Division of HIV/AIDS Prevention, National Center for HIV, Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention (NCHH-STP), CCID, CDC, Atlanta, Georgia 30333
| | - Louisa E. Chapman
- HIV and Retrovirology Branch, Division of AIDS, STD and TB Laboratory Research (DASTLR), National Center for Infectious Diseases (NCID), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia 30333
- National Center for Immunizations and Respiratory Diseases, CCID, CDC, Atlanta, Georgia 30333
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90
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Epstein RJ. Growth of the Asian health-care market: global implications for the pharmaceutical industry. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2007; 6:785-92. [PMID: 17853900 DOI: 10.1038/nrd2360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The global economy is being transformed by an explosion of information unleashed by the internet, the digital revolution, communications and increased international mobility. This transformation is manifesting in many ways, including rapid development of countries such as China, commoditization of public services, mobilization of workforces, shifting of market control from suppliers to consumers, interlinked rises in product demand and customer expectations, and problems regulating international business competition. As Asia is home to half of the world's population, and offers both a large relatively low-cost workforce in some countries and a potentially huge retail market, this region could be central to the future of the global economy. Like other industries, the pharmaceutical industry faces a new array of Asia-specific opportunities and challenges. Success in meeting these challenges will go to those pharmaceutical companies that best understand the unique strengths and constraints of Asia's diverse cultures, talents and markets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard J Epstein
- Department of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Queen Mary Hospital, Pokfulam, Hong Kong.
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91
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LeBreton M, Yang O, Tamoufe U, Mpoudi-Ngole E, Torimiro JN, Djoko CF, Carr JK, Prosser AT, Rimoin AW, Birx DL, Burke DS, Wolfe ND. Exposure to wild primates among HIV-infected persons. Emerg Infect Dis 2007; 13. [PMID: 18258013 PMCID: PMC2851513 DOI: 10.3201/eid1309.070338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
HIV-1 is an immunosuppressive pathogen. Our behavioral data for 191 HIV-1-infected rural Cameroonians show frequent exposure to nonhuman primates through activities such as hunting and butchering. Immunosuppression among persons exposed to body fluids of wild nonhuman primates could favor the process of adaptation and subsequent emergence of zoonotic pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Otto Yang
- University of California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | | | | | | | | | - Jean K. Carr
- University of Maryland Biotechnology Institute, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - A. Tassy Prosser
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | | | - Deborah L. Birx
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
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92
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Qualitative Assessment of Macaque Tourist Sites in Padangtegal, Bali, Indonesia, and the Upper Rock Nature Reserve, Gibraltar. INT J PRIMATOL 2007. [DOI: 10.1007/s10764-007-9184-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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93
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Denner J. Transspecies transmissions of retroviruses: new cases. Virology 2007; 369:229-33. [PMID: 17870141 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2007.07.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2007] [Revised: 06/13/2007] [Accepted: 07/25/2007] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Transspecies transmission is common among retroviruses, although the consequences of the transmission are very different. Some transspecies transmissions have resulted in fatal diseases in the new host while others have remained asymptomatic. Some retroviruses are apathogenic in the original species, but pathogenic in a new host and others can be pathogenic or apathogenic in both species. In some cases, endogenization of the retrovirus in the new host has been observed but in others not, while some transmitted retroviruses exist in both forms. Although in most cases transspecies transmission has been observed in one direction only, bidirectional transmissions of caprine and ovine lentiviruses have recently been described. Studies on newly reported natural and experimental transspecies transmissions of the koala retrovirus (KoRV) may help to understand such events.
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94
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Jones-Engel L, Steinkraus KA, Murray SM, Engel GA, Grant R, Aggimarangsee N, Lee BPYH, May C, Schillaci MA, Somgird C, Sutthipat T, Vojtech L, Zhao J, Linial ML. Sensitive assays for simian foamy viruses reveal a high prevalence of infection in commensal, free-ranging Asian monkeys. J Virol 2007; 81:7330-7. [PMID: 17475645 PMCID: PMC1933339 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00343-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Foamy viruses (FV) are retroviruses that naturally infect many hosts, including most nonhuman primates (NHPs). Zoonotic infection by primate FV has been documented in people in Asia who reported contact with free-ranging macaques. FV transmission in Asia is a concern, given abundant human-NHP contact, particularly at monkey temples and in urban settings. We have developed three assays capable of detecting the presence of FV in Asian NHP species that are commensal with humans: enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), Western blot assays using recombinant viral Gag protein, and an indicator cell line that can detect macaque FV. The recombinant ELISA correlates very well with the presence of FV sequences detected by PCR. We have used these assays to demonstrate both that FV is highly prevalent among free-ranging NHPs and that seroconversion occurs at a young age in these animals. These assays should also prove useful for large-scale analysis of the prevalence of FV infections in human populations in Asia that are commensal with free-ranging NHPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Jones-Engel
- Washington National Primate Research Center, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
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95
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Reid MJC, Ursic R, Cooper D, Nazzari H, Griffiths M, Galdikas BM, Garriga RM, Skinner M, Lowenberger C. Transmission of human and macaque Plasmodium spp. to ex-captive orangutans in Kalimantan, Indonesia. Emerg Infect Dis 2007; 12:1902-8. [PMID: 17326942 PMCID: PMC3291341 DOI: 10.3201/eid1212.060191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Data are lacking on the specific diseases to which great apes are susceptible and the transmission dynamics and overall impact of these diseases. We examined the prevalence of Plasmodium spp. infections in semicaptive orangutans housed at the Orangutan Care Center and Quarantine, Central Kalimantan, Indonesia, by using a combination of microscopic and DNA molecular techniques to identify the Plasmodium spp. in each animal. Previous studies indicated 2 orangutan-specific Plasmodium spp., but our data show 4 Plasmodium spp. These findings provide evidence for P. vivax transmission between humans and orangutans and for P. cynomolgi transmission between macaques and orangutans. These data have potential implications for the conservation of orangutans and also for the bidirectional transmission of parasites between orangutans and humans visiting or living in the region.
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96
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Murphy HW, Miller M, Ramer J, Travis D, Barbiers R, Wolfe ND, Switzer WM. Implications of simian retroviruses for captive primate population management and the occupational safety of primate handlers. J Zoo Wildl Med 2007; 37:219-33. [PMID: 17319119 DOI: 10.1638/05-110.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Nonhuman primates can be naturally infected with a plethora of viruses with zoonotic potential, including retroviruses. These simian viruses present risks to both captive nonhuman primate populations and persons exposed to nonhuman primates. Simian retroviruses, including simian immunodeficiency virus, simian type D retrovirus, simian T-lymphotropic virus, and gibbon ape leukemia virus, have been shown to cause clinical disease in nonhuman primates. In contrast, simian foamy virus, a retrovirus that is highly prevalent in most nonhuman primates, has not been associated with clinical disease in naturally infected primates. Although it has been shown that human retrovirus infections with human T-lymphotropic virus and human immunodeficiency virus originated through multiple independent introductions of simian retroviruses into human populations that then spread globally, little is known about the frequency of such zoonotic events. In this article, exogenous simian retroviruses are reviewed as a concern for zoo and wildlife veterinarians, primate handlers, other persons in direct contact with nonhuman primates, and other nonhuman primates in a collection. The health implications for individual animals as well as managed populations in zoos and research institutions are discussed, the cross-species transmission and zoonotic disease potential of simian retroviruses are described, and suggestions for working safely with nonhuman primates are provided.
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97
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Cohn DL, Smith V, Pizarro M, Jones-Engel L, Engel G, Fuentes A, Shaw E, Cortes J. Pediculosis in Macaca sylvanus of Gibraltar. Vet Parasitol 2007; 145:116-9. [PMID: 17280788 PMCID: PMC1924910 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2006.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2006] [Revised: 11/24/2006] [Accepted: 12/05/2006] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Pedicinus spp. parasitize several species of nonhuman primates. This is the first published report confirming the presence of Pedicinus albidus (Rudow) infestation in the free-ranging macaques (Macaca sylvanus) of Gibraltar. The diagnosis of pediculosis was based upon finding adult lice on host animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas L Cohn
- Animal Resources Faculty, Albany Medical College, Albany, NY, USA.
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98
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Other Viral, Bacterial, Parasitic and Prion-Based Infectious Complications. BLOOD BANKING AND TRANSFUSION MEDICINE 2007. [PMCID: PMC7152373 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-443-06981-9.50053-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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99
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LeBreton M, Prosser A, Tamoufe U, Sateren W, Mpoudi-Ngole E, Diffo JLD, Burke DS, Wolfe ND. Patterns of bushmeat hunting and perceptions of disease risk among central African communities. Anim Conserv 2006. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-1795.2006.00030.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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100
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