51
|
Valtierra-Alvarado MA, Castañeda Delgado JE, Ramírez-Talavera SI, Lugo-Villarino G, Dueñas-Arteaga F, Lugo-Sánchez A, Adame-Villalpando MS, Rivas-Santiago B, Enciso-Moreno J, Serrano CJ. Type 2 diabetes mellitus metabolic control correlates with the phenotype of human monocytes and monocyte-derived macrophages. J Diabetes Complications 2020; 34:107708. [PMID: 32843282 DOI: 10.1016/j.jdiacomp.2020.107708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2020] [Revised: 07/31/2020] [Accepted: 08/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
AIMS Monocytes and macrophages express cell-surface markers indicative of their inflammatory and activation status. In this study, we investigated whether these markers are affected or correlated in non-obese T2D subjects, or glycemic/metabolic control variables. METHODS Clinical data was recorded, and peripheral blood drawn from T2D patients (n = 28) and control subjects (n = 27). Isolated monocytes were evaluated by flow cytometry for the expression of CD14, CD16, and the phenotypic markers for the different states of activation spectrum, such as pro-inflammatory (M1) (HLA-DR, CD86), anti-inflammatory/pro-resolving (M2) (CD163, CD206, MERTK, PD-L1) and metabolically-activated (MMe) (CD36, ABCA-1). From a subset of individuals, monocytes-derived macrophages (MDM) were obtained and evaluated for phenotypic markers. A correlation analysis was performed between the clinical variables and the marker expression. RESULTS The frequency of CD14++CD16- monocytes was lower in T2D patients and it correlates negatively with poor control in glycemic and metabolic variables. T2D monocytes expressed lower levels of HLA-DR, CD86, PD-L1, and CD163, which correlated negatively with poor metabolic control. In MDM from T2D patients, HLA-DR, CD86 and CD163 expression was lower and it inversely correlated with deficient glycemic or metabolic control parameters. CONCLUSION The glycemic/metabolic control associated with T2D influences monocyte and MDM phenotypes toward an immune-suppressive phenotype.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M A Valtierra-Alvarado
- Unidad de Investigación Biomédica Zacatecas, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Mexico; Departamento de Inmunología, Centro de Investigación en Ciencias de la Salud y Biomedicina, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí (UASLP), Mexico
| | - J E Castañeda Delgado
- Cátedras CONACyT, Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT-México), Unidad de Investigación Biomédica Zacatecas, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Zacatecas, Mexico
| | - S I Ramírez-Talavera
- Unidad de Investigación Biomédica Zacatecas, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Mexico; Departamento de Inmunología, Centro de Investigación en Ciencias de la Salud y Biomedicina, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí (UASLP), Mexico
| | - G Lugo-Villarino
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - F Dueñas-Arteaga
- Universidad Autónoma de Zacatecas, Unidad Académica de Medicina Humana y Ciencias de la Salud, Zacatecas, Mexico
| | - A Lugo-Sánchez
- Unidad de Investigación Biomédica Zacatecas, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Mexico; Universidad Autónoma de Zacatecas, Unidad Académica de Ciencias Químicas, Zacatecas, Mexico
| | - M S Adame-Villalpando
- Unidad de Investigación Biomédica Zacatecas, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Mexico; Universidad Autónoma de Zacatecas, Unidad Académica de Ciencias Químicas, Zacatecas, Mexico
| | - B Rivas-Santiago
- Unidad de Investigación Biomédica Zacatecas, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Mexico
| | - J Enciso-Moreno
- Unidad de Investigación Biomédica Zacatecas, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Mexico
| | - C J Serrano
- Unidad de Investigación Biomédica Zacatecas, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Mexico.
| |
Collapse
|
52
|
Kiss M, Caro AA, Raes G, Laoui D. Systemic Reprogramming of Monocytes in Cancer. Front Oncol 2020; 10:1399. [PMID: 33042791 PMCID: PMC7528630 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2020.01399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2020] [Accepted: 07/02/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Monocytes influence multiple aspects of tumor progression, including antitumor immunity, angiogenesis, and metastasis, primarily by infiltrating tumors, and differentiating into tumor-associated macrophages. Emerging evidence suggests that the tumor-induced systemic environment influences the development and phenotype of monocytes before their arrival to the tumor site. As a result, circulating monocytes show functional alterations in cancer, such as the acquisition of immunosuppressive activity and reduced responsiveness to inflammatory stimuli. In this review, we summarize available evidence about cancer-induced changes in monopoiesis and its impact on the abundance and function of monocytes in the periphery. In addition, we describe the phenotypical alterations observed in tumor-educated peripheral blood monocytes and highlight crucial gaps in our knowledge about additional cellular functions that may be affected based on transcriptomic studies. We also highlight emerging therapeutic strategies that aim to reverse cancer-induced changes in monopoiesis and peripheral monocytes to inhibit tumor progression and improve therapy responses. Overall, we suggest that an in-depth understanding of systemic monocyte reprogramming will have implications for cancer immunotherapy and the development of clinical biomarkers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Máté Kiss
- Myeloid Cell Immunology Lab, VIB Center for Inflammation Research, Brussels, Belgium.,Lab of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Aarushi Audhut Caro
- Myeloid Cell Immunology Lab, VIB Center for Inflammation Research, Brussels, Belgium.,Lab of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Geert Raes
- Myeloid Cell Immunology Lab, VIB Center for Inflammation Research, Brussels, Belgium.,Lab of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Damya Laoui
- Myeloid Cell Immunology Lab, VIB Center for Inflammation Research, Brussels, Belgium.,Lab of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| |
Collapse
|
53
|
Peranzoni E, Ingangi V, Masetto E, Pinton L, Marigo I. Myeloid Cells as Clinical Biomarkers for Immune Checkpoint Blockade. Front Immunol 2020; 11:1590. [PMID: 32793228 PMCID: PMC7393010 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.01590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2020] [Accepted: 06/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Immune checkpoint inhibitors are becoming standard treatments in several cancer types, profoundly changing the prognosis of a fraction of patients. Currently, many efforts are being made to predict responders and to understand how to overcome resistance in non-responders. Given the crucial role of myeloid cells as modulators of T effector cell function in tumors, it is essential to understand their impact on the clinical outcome of immune checkpoint blockade and on the mechanisms of immune evasion. In this review we focus on the existing clinical evidence of the relation between the presence of myeloid cell subsets and the response to anti-PD(L)1 and anti-CTLA-4 treatment. We highlight how circulating and tumor-infiltrating myeloid populations can be used as predictive biomarkers for immune checkpoint inhibitors in different human cancers, both at baseline and on treatment. Moreover, we propose to follow the dynamics of myeloid cells during immunotherapy as pharmacodynamic biomarkers. Finally, we provide an overview of the current strategies tested in the clinic that use myeloid cell targeting together with immune checkpoint blockade with the aim of uncovering the most promising approaches for effective combinations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elisa Peranzoni
- Center for Therapeutic Innovation in Oncology, Institut de Recherche International Servier, Suresnes, France
| | | | - Elena Masetto
- Veneto Institute of Oncology IOV - IRCCS, Padua, Italy
| | - Laura Pinton
- Veneto Institute of Oncology IOV - IRCCS, Padua, Italy
| | - Ilaria Marigo
- Veneto Institute of Oncology IOV - IRCCS, Padua, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
54
|
Bruserud Ø, Aarstad HH, Tvedt THA. Combined C-Reactive Protein and Novel Inflammatory Parameters as a Predictor in Cancer-What Can We Learn from the Hematological Experience? Cancers (Basel) 2020; 12:cancers12071966. [PMID: 32707721 PMCID: PMC7409204 DOI: 10.3390/cancers12071966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2020] [Revised: 07/13/2020] [Accepted: 07/15/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The acute phase reaction is a systemic response to acute or chronic inflammation. The serum level of C-reactive protein (CRP) is the only acute phase biomarker widely used in routine clinical practice, including its uses for prognostics and therapy monitoring in cancer patients. Although Interleukin 6 (IL6) is a main trigger of the acute phase reactions, a series of acute phase reactants can contribute (e.g., other members in IL6 family or IL1 subfamily, and tumor necrosis factor α). However, the experience from patients receiving intensive chemotherapy for hematological malignancies has shown that, besides CRP, other biomarkers (e.g., cytokines, soluble cytokine receptors, soluble adhesion molecules) also have altered systemic levels as a part of the acute phase reaction in these immunocompromised patients. Furthermore, CRP and white blood cell counts can serve as a dual prognostic predictor in solid tumors and hematological malignancies. Recent studies also suggest that biomarker profiles as well as alternative inflammatory mediators should be further developed to optimize the predictive utility in cancer patients. Finally, the experience from allogeneic stem cell transplantation suggests that selected acute phase reactants together with specific markers of organ damages are useful for predicting or diagnosing graft versus host disease. Acute phase proteins may also be useful to identify patients (at risk of) developing severe immune-mediated toxicity after anticancer immunotherapy. To conclude, future studies of acute phase predictors in human malignancies should not only investigate the conventional inflammatory mediators (e.g., CRP, white blood cell counts) but also combinations of novel inflammatory parameters with specific markers of organ damages.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Øystein Bruserud
- Section for Hematology, Institute of Clinical Science, Faculty of Medicine, University of Bergen, 5007 Bergen, Norway;
- Section for Hematology, Department of Medicine, Haukeland University Hospital, 5021 Bergen, Norway;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +47-5597-2997
| | - Helene Hersvik Aarstad
- Section for Hematology, Institute of Clinical Science, Faculty of Medicine, University of Bergen, 5007 Bergen, Norway;
| | | |
Collapse
|
55
|
A Dual Face of APE1 in the Maintenance of Genetic Stability in Monocytes: An Overview of the Current Status and Future Perspectives. Genes (Basel) 2020; 11:genes11060643. [PMID: 32545201 PMCID: PMC7349382 DOI: 10.3390/genes11060643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2020] [Revised: 06/05/2020] [Accepted: 06/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Monocytes, which play a crucial role in the immune system, are characterized by an enormous sensitivity to oxidative stress. As they lack four key proteins responsible for DNA damage response (DDR) pathways, they are especially prone to reactive oxygen species (ROS) exposure leading to oxidative DNA lesions and, consequently, ROS-driven apoptosis. Although such a phenomenon is of important biological significance in the regulation of monocyte/macrophage/dendritic cells’ balance, it also a challenge for monocytic mechanisms that have to provide and maintain genetic stability of its own DNA. Interestingly, apurinic/apyrimidinic endonuclease 1 (APE1), which is one of the key proteins in two DDR mechanisms, base excision repair (BER) and non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) pathways, operates in monocytic cells, although both BER and NHEJ are impaired in these cells. Thus, on the one hand, APE1 endonucleolytic activity leads to enhanced levels of both single- and double-strand DNA breaks (SSDs and DSBs, respectively) in monocytic DNA that remain unrepaired because of the impaired BER and NHEJ. On the other hand, there is some experimental evidence suggesting that APE1 is a crucial player in monocytic genome maintenance and stability through different molecular mechanisms, including induction of cytoprotective and antioxidant genes. Here, the dual face of APE1 is discussed.
Collapse
|
56
|
Meghraoui-Kheddar A, Barthelemy S, Boissonnas A, Combadière C. Revising CX3CR1 Expression on Murine Classical and Non-classical Monocytes. Front Immunol 2020; 11:1117. [PMID: 32582197 PMCID: PMC7283740 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.01117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2020] [Accepted: 05/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
In mice, monocytes (Mo) are conventionally described as CX3CR1low classical Mo (CMo) and CX3CR1high non-classical Mo (NCMo) based on the expression of EGFP in Cx3cr1+/EGFP mice and by analogy with human CX3CR1 expression. Although this terminology is widely used, it may not reflect the expression of CX3CR1 on Mo subsets. Using an unsupervised multiparametric analysis of blood Mo in steady state and after sterile peritonitis, we observed that CX3CR1 expression did not discriminate the CMo from the NCMo subsets. Our results highlight that despite being a reliable reporter to discriminate Mo subpopulations, EGFP level in Cx3cr1+/EGFP mice does not reflect CX3CR1 expression measured by a fluorescently-labeled CX3CL1 chemokine and a CX3CR1 specific antibody. In conclusion, authors should be cautious not to identify murine classical and non-classical Mo as CX3CR1low and CX3CR1high but rather use alternative markers such as the combination of Ly6C and CD43.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aïda Meghraoui-Kheddar
- Sorbonne Université, Inserm, CNRS, Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, Cimi-Paris, Paris, France.,Université Côte d'Azur, CNRS UMR7275, Institut de Pharmacologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire (IPMC), Valbonne, France
| | - Sandrine Barthelemy
- Sorbonne Université, Inserm, CNRS, Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, Cimi-Paris, Paris, France
| | - Alexandre Boissonnas
- Sorbonne Université, Inserm, CNRS, Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, Cimi-Paris, Paris, France
| | - Christophe Combadière
- Sorbonne Université, Inserm, CNRS, Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, Cimi-Paris, Paris, France
| |
Collapse
|
57
|
Bieber K, Autenrieth SE. Dendritic cell development in infection. Mol Immunol 2020; 121:111-117. [PMID: 32199210 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2020.02.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2019] [Revised: 02/03/2020] [Accepted: 02/20/2020] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
The immune system protects from infections primarily by detecting and eliminating invading pathogens. This is predominantly mediated by innate immune cells like neutrophils, monocytes and dendritic cells (DCs) expressing specific receptors recognizing pathogen-associated molecular patterns. DC activation by pathogens leads to the initiation of antigen-specific adaptive immune responses, thereby bridging the innate and adaptive immune systems. However, various pathogens have evolved immune evasion strategies to ensure their survival. In this review, we highlight recent findings on how various microorganisms or their structural features affect or modulate DC development and whether this has any consequences for a protective immune response.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kristin Bieber
- Department of Internal Medicine II, University of Tübingen, Germany
| | | |
Collapse
|
58
|
Trovato R, Canè S, Petrova V, Sartoris S, Ugel S, De Sanctis F. The Engagement Between MDSCs and Metastases: Partners in Crime. Front Oncol 2020; 10:165. [PMID: 32133298 PMCID: PMC7040035 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2020.00165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2019] [Accepted: 01/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Tumor metastases represent the major cause of cancer-related mortality, confirming the urgent need to identify key molecular pathways and cell-associated networks during the early phases of the metastatic process to develop new strategies to either prevent or control distal cancer spread. Several data revealed the ability of cancer cells to establish a favorable microenvironment, before their arrival in distant organs, by manipulating the cell composition and function of the new host tissue where cancer cells can survive and outgrow. This predetermined environment is termed “pre-metastatic niche” (pMN). pMN development requires that tumor-derived soluble factors, like cytokines, growth-factors and extracellular vesicles, genetically and epigenetically re-program not only resident cells (i.e., fibroblasts) but also non-resident cells such as bone marrow-derived cells. Indeed, by promoting an “emergency” myelopoiesis, cancer cells switch the steady state production of blood cells toward the generation of pro-tumor circulating myeloid cells defined as myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) able to sustain tumor growth and dissemination. MDSCs are a heterogeneous subset of myeloid cells with immunosuppressive properties that sustain metastatic process. In this review, we discuss current understandings of how MDSCs shape and promote metastatic dissemination acting in each fundamental steps of cancer progression from primary tumor to metastatic disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rosalinda Trovato
- Section of Immunology, Department of Medicine, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Stefania Canè
- Section of Immunology, Department of Medicine, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Varvara Petrova
- Section of Immunology, Department of Medicine, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Silvia Sartoris
- Section of Immunology, Department of Medicine, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Stefano Ugel
- Section of Immunology, Department of Medicine, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Francesco De Sanctis
- Section of Immunology, Department of Medicine, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
59
|
The epigenetic face of lupus: Focus on antigen-presenting cells. Int Immunopharmacol 2020; 81:106262. [PMID: 32045873 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2020.106262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2019] [Revised: 01/23/2020] [Accepted: 01/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, epigenetic mechanisms became widely known due to their ability to regulate and maintain physiological processes such as cell growth, development, differentiation and genomic stability. When dysregulated, epigenetic mechanisms, may introduce gene expression changes and disturbance in immune homeostasis leading to autoimmune diseases. Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), the most extensively studied autoimmune disorder, has already been correlated with epigenetic modifications, especially in T cells. Since these cell rely on antigen presentation, it may be assumed that erroneous activity of antigen-presenting cells (APCs), culminates in T cell abnormalities. In this review we summarize and discuss the epigenetic modifications in SLE affected APCs, with the focus on dendritic cells (DCs), B cells and monocytes. Unravelling this aspect of SLE pathogenesis, might result in identification of new disease biomarkers and putative therapeutic approaches.
Collapse
|
60
|
Bergenfelz C, Leandersson K. The Generation and Identity of Human Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells. Front Oncol 2020; 10:109. [PMID: 32117758 PMCID: PMC7025543 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2020.00109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2019] [Accepted: 01/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) are cells of myeloid lineage with a potent immunosuppressive capacity. They are present in cancer patients as well as in patients with severe inflammatory conditions and infections. MDSCs exist as two main subtypes, the granulocytic (G-MDSCs) and the monocytic (Mo-MDSCs) type, as defined by their surface phenotype and functions. While the functions of MDSCs have been investigated in depth, the origin of human MDSCs is less characterized and even controversial. In this review, we recapitulate theories on how MDSCs are generated in mice, and whether this knowledge is translatable into human MDSC biology, as well as on problems of defining MDSCs by their immature cell surface phenotype in relation to the plasticity of myeloid cells. Finally, the challenge of pharmacological targeting of MDSCs in the future is envisioned.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Bergenfelz
- Department of Translational Medicine, Division of Experimental Infection Medicine, Lund University, Malmö, Sweden
| | - Karin Leandersson
- Department of Translational Medicine, Cancer Immunology, Lund University, Skåne University Hospital, Malmö, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
61
|
Human Anti-tumor Immunity: Insights from Immunotherapy Clinical Trials. Immunity 2020; 52:36-54. [DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2019.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2019] [Revised: 12/08/2019] [Accepted: 12/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
|
62
|
Current Strategies to Target Tumor-Associated-Macrophages to Improve Anti-Tumor Immune Responses. Cells 2019; 9:cells9010046. [PMID: 31878087 PMCID: PMC7017001 DOI: 10.3390/cells9010046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 189] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2019] [Revised: 12/17/2019] [Accepted: 12/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
: Established evidence demonstrates that tumor-infiltrating myeloid cells promote rather than stop-cancer progression. Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are abundantly present at tumor sites, and here they support cancer proliferation and distant spreading, as well as contribute to an immune-suppressive milieu. Their pro-tumor activities hamper the response of cancer patients to conventional therapies, such as chemotherapy or radiotherapy, and also to immunotherapies based on checkpoint inhibition. Active research frontlines of the last years have investigated novel therapeutic strategies aimed at depleting TAMs and/or at reprogramming their tumor-promoting effects, with the goal of re-establishing a favorable immunological anti-tumor response within the tumor tissue. In recent years, numerous clinical trials have included pharmacological strategies to target TAMs alone or in combination with other therapies. This review summarizes the past and current knowledge available on experimental tumor models and human clinical studies targeting TAMs for cancer treatment.
Collapse
|