Hyaluronic Acid-Based Theranostic Nanomedicines for Targeted Cancer Therapy

Nanocarriers as a Tool for the Treatment of Colorectal Cancer

Nanotechnology is a promising tool for the treatment of cancer. In the past decades, major steps have been made to bring nanotechnology into the clinic in the form of nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems. The great hope of drug delivery systems is to reduce the side effects of chemotherapeutics while simultaneously increasing the efficiency of the therapy. An increased treatment efficiency would greatly benefit the quality of life as well as the life expectancy of cancer patients. However, besides its many advantages, nanomedicines have to face several challenges and hurdles before they can be used for the effective treatment of tumors. Here, we give an overview of the hallmarks of cancer, especially colorectal cancer, and discuss biological barriers as well as how drug delivery systems can be utilized for the effective treatment of tumors and metastases.

Recent advances in transdermal drug delivery systems: a review

Various non-invasive administrations have recently emerged as an alternative to conventional needle injections. A transdermal drug delivery system (TDDS) represents the most attractive method among these because of its low rejection rate, excellent ease of administration, and superb convenience and persistence among patients. TDDS could be applicable in not only pharmaceuticals but also in the skin care industry, including cosmetics. Because this method mainly involves local administration, it can prevent local buildup in drug concentration and nonspecific delivery to tissues not targeted by the drug. However, the physicochemical properties of the skin translate to multiple obstacles and restrictions in transdermal delivery, with numerous investigations conducted to overcome these bottlenecks. In this review, we describe the different types of available TDDS methods, along with a critical discussion of the specific advantages and disadvantages, characterization methods, and potential of each method. Progress in research on these alternative methods has established the high efficiency inherent to TDDS, which is expected to find applications in a wide range of fields.

Advantages of Hyaluronic Acid and Its Combination with Other Bioactive Ingredients in Cosmeceuticals

This study proposes a review on hyaluronic acid (HA) known as hyaluronan or hyaluronate and its derivates and their application in cosmetic formulations. HA is a glycosaminoglycan constituted from two disaccharides (N-acetylglucosamine and D-glucuronic acid), isolated initially from the vitreous humour of the eye, and subsequently discovered in different tissues or fluids (especially in the articular cartilage and the synovial fluid). It is ubiquitous in vertebrates, including humans, and it is involved in diverse biological processes, such as cell differentiation, embryological development, inflammation, wound healing, etc. HA has many qualities that recommend it over other substances used in skin regeneration, with moisturizing and anti-ageing effects. HA molecular weight influences its penetration into the skin and its biological activity. Considering that, nowadays, hyaluronic acid has a wide use and a multitude of applications (in ophthalmology, arthrology, pneumology, rhinology, aesthetic medicine, oncology, nutrition, and cosmetics), the present study describes the main aspects related to its use in cosmetology. The biological effect of HA on the skin level and its potential adverse effects are discussed. Some available cosmetic products containing HA have been identified from the brand portfolio of most known manufacturers and their composition was evaluated. Further, additional biological effects due to the other active ingredients (plant extracts, vitamins, amino acids, peptides, proteins, saccharides, probiotics, etc.) are presented, as well as a description of their possible toxic effects.

Self-Assembled Nanogels Based on Ionic Gelation of Natural Polysaccharides for Drug Delivery

The polysaccharides (PS) have been widely used as biomaterials in drug delivery, due to their excellent biocompatibility, ease of functionalization, and intrinsic biological activities. Among the various PS-based biomaterials, the self-assembled PS nanogels (NG) featuring facile preparation are attracting evergrowing interests in various biomedical applications. Specifically, NG derived from the self-assembly of natural PS well maintain both the physicochemical and biological properties of PS while avoiding the chemical modification or alteration of PS structure, representing a potent drug delivery system for various therapeutic agents. In this review, the natural PS, such as chitosan, alginate, and hyaluronan, for self-assembled NG construction and their advantages in the applications of drug delivery have been summarized. The residues, such as amine, carboxyl, and hydroxyl groups, on these PS provide multiple sites for both ionic cross-linking and metal coordination, which greatly contribute to the formation of self-assembled NG as well as the drug loading, thus enabling a wide biomedical application of PS NG, especially for drug delivery. Future developments and considerations in the clinical translation of these self-assembled PS NG have also been discussed.

Differentiating Co-Delivery of Bisphosphonate and Simvastatin by Self-Healing Hyaluronan Hydrogel Formed by Orthogonal "Clicks": An In-Vitro Assessment

Due to its unique properties resembling living tissues, hydrogels are attractive carriers for the localized and targeted delivery of various drugs. Drug release kinetics from hydrogels are commonly controlled by network properties and the drug-network interactions. However, and simultaneously, the programmable delivery of multiple drugs with opposing properties (hydrophilicity, molecular weight, etc.) from hydrogels with determined network properties is still challenging. Herein, we describe the preparation of injectable self-healing hyaluronic acid (HA) hydrogels that release hydrophobic simvastatin and hydrophilic aminobisphosphonate (BP) drugs independently in response to acidic and thiol-containing microenvironments, respectively. We apply a prodrug strategy to BP by conjugating it to HA via a self-immolative disulfide linker that is stable in the blood plasma and is cleavable in the cytoplasm. Moreover, we utilize HA-linked BP ligands to reversibly bind Ca²⁺ ions and form coordination hydrogels. Hydrazone coupling of hydrophobic ligands to HA permits the encapsulation of simvastatin molecules in the resulting amphiphilic HA derivative and the subsequent acid-triggered release of the drug. The conjugation of BP and hydrophobic ligands to HA enables preparation of both bulk self-healing hydrogels and nanogels. Moreover, the developed hydrogel system is shown to be multi-responsive by applying orthogonally cleavable linkers. The presented hydrogel is a potential candidate for the combination treatment of osteoporosis and bone cancers as well as for bone tissue regeneration since it can deliver bone anabolic and anti-catabolic agents in response to bone diseases microenvironments.

Lignin, lipid, protein, hyaluronic acid, starch, cellulose, gum, pectin, alginate and chitosan-based nanomaterials for cancer nanotherapy: Challenges and opportunities

Although nanotechnology-driven drug delivery systems are relatively new, they are rapidly evolving since the nanomaterials are deployed as effective means of diagnosis and delivery of assorted therapeutic agents to targeted intracellular sites in a controlled release manner. Nanomedicine and nanoparticulate drug delivery systems are rapidly developing as they play crucial roles in the development of therapeutic strategies for various types of cancer and malignancy. Nevertheless, high costs, associated toxicity and production of complexities are some of the critical barriers for their applications. Green nanomedicines have continually been improved as one of the viable approaches towards tumor drug delivery, thus making a notable impact on which considerably affect cancer treatment. In this regard, the utilization of natural and renewable feedstocks as a starting point for the fabrication of nanosystems can considerably contribute to the development of green nanomedicines. Nanostructures and biopolymers derived from natural and biorenewable resources such as proteins, lipids, lignin, hyaluronic acid, starch, cellulose, gum, pectin, alginate, and chitosan play vital roles in the development of cancer nanotherapy, imaging and management. This review uncovers recent investigations on diverse nanoarchitectures fabricated from natural and renewable feedstocks for the controlled/sustained and targeted drug/gene delivery systems against cancers including an outlook on some of the scientific challenges and opportunities in this field. Various important natural biopolymers and nanomaterials for cancer nanotherapy are covered and the scientific challenges and opportunities in this field are reviewed.

Biomedical Applications of Bacteria-Derived Polymers

Plastics have found widespread use in the fields of cosmetic, engineering, and medical sciences due to their wide-ranging mechanical and physical properties, as well as suitability in biomedical applications. However, in the light of the environmental cost of further upscaling current methods of synthesizing many plastics, work has recently focused on the manufacture of these polymers using biological methods (often bacterial fermentation), which brings with them the advantages of both low temperature synthesis and a reduced reliance on potentially toxic and non-eco-friendly compounds. This can be seen as a boon in the biomaterials industry, where there is a need for highly bespoke, biocompatible, processable polymers with unique biological properties, for the regeneration and replacement of a large number of tissue types, following disease. However, barriers still remain to the mass-production of some of these polymers, necessitating new research. This review attempts a critical analysis of the contemporary literature concerning the use of a number of bacteria-derived polymers in the context of biomedical applications, including the biosynthetic pathways and organisms involved, as well as the challenges surrounding their mass production. This review will also consider the unique properties of these bacteria-derived polymers, contributing to bioactivity, including antibacterial properties, oxygen permittivity, and properties pertaining to cell adhesion, proliferation, and differentiation. Finally, the review will select notable examples in literature to indicate future directions, should the aforementioned barriers be addressed, as well as improvements to current bacterial fermentation methods that could help to address these barriers.

Self-assembly of hyaluronic acid-mediated tumor-targeting theranostic nanoparticles

Theranostic nanoparticles (NPs) have emerged as promising candidates for cancer diagnosis and treatment. Manganese dioxide (MnO₂)-based NPs are potential contrast agents with excellent paramagnetic property and biocompatibility, exhibiting satisfactory magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) effects and biological safety. Recently, hyaluronic acid (HA) has gained increasing interest due to its tumor-targeting ability, which can improve the tumor affinity of manganese dioxide (MnO₂)-based NPs. In this study, HA-coated and albumin (BSA)-templated MnO₂ and polydopamine hybrid nanoparticles (HMDNs) with tumor-targeting and superior imaging capability were fabricated via modifying the nanoparticles prepared by integrating dopamine polymerization and MnO₂ biomineralization. The modification was found to enhance the cellular uptake of HMDNs by cancer cells. The prepared HMDN had high MRI contrasting capability with a longitudinal relaxivity of 22.2 mM^-1 s^-1 and strong photothermal therapy (PTT) effects with nearly complete tumor ablation under laser irradiation in vivo. HMDNs also showed effective clearance through kidneys, with no toxicity to important tissues. Therefore, HMDNs with superior imaging and PTT capability presented a new method to prepare tumor-targeting multifunctional nanotheranostics.

Tumor Environment-Responsive Hyaluronan Conjugated Zinc Protoporphyrin for Targeted Anticancer Photodynamic Therapy

Targeted tumor accumulation, tumor environment responsive drug release, and effective internalization are critical issues being considered in developing anticancer nanomedicine. In this context, we synthesized a tumor environment-responsive nanoprobe for anticancer photodynamic therapy (PDT) that is a hyaluronan conjugated zinc protoporphyrin via an ester bond (HA-es-ZnPP), and we examined its anticancer PDT effect both in vitro and in vivo. HA-es-ZnPP exhibits high water-solubility and forms micelles of ~40 nm in aqueous solutions. HA-es-ZnPP shows fluorescence quenching without apparent 1O2 generation under light irradiation because of micelle formation. However, 1O2 was extensively generated when the micelle is disrupted, and ZnPP is released. Compared to native ZnPP, HA-es-ZnPP showed lower but comparable intracellular uptake and cytotoxicity in cultured mouse C26 colon cancer cells; more importantly, light irradiation resulted in 10-time increased cytotoxicity, which is the PDT effect. In a mouse sarcoma S180 solid tumor model, HA-es-ZnPP as polymeric micelles exhibited a prolonged systemic circulation time and the consequent tumor-selective accumulation based on the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect was evidenced. Consequently, a remarkable anticancer PDT effect was achieved using HA-es-ZnPP and a xenon light source, without apparent side effects. These findings suggest the potential of HA-es-ZnPP as a candidate anticancer nanomedicine for PDT.

Biodegradable Polymeric Nanoparticles for Drug Delivery to Solid Tumors

Advances in nanotechnology have favored the development of novel colloidal formulations able to modulate the pharmacological and biopharmaceutical properties of drugs. The peculiar physico-chemical and technological properties of nanomaterial-based therapeutics have allowed for several successful applications in the treatment of cancer. The size, shape, charge and patterning of nanoscale therapeutic molecules are parameters that need to be investigated and modulated in order to promote and optimize cell and tissue interaction. In this review, the use of polymeric nanoparticles as drug delivery systems of anticancer compounds, their physico-chemical properties and their ability to be efficiently localized in specific tumor tissues have been described. The nanoencapsulation of antitumor active compounds in polymeric systems is a promising approach to improve the efficacy of various tumor treatments.

Assembly and Detachment of Hyaluronic Acid on a Protein-Conjugated Gold Nanoparticle

The assembly-disassembly of hyaluronic acid (HA) with a bovine serum albumin-conjugated gold nanoparticle (BSA-AuNP) was demonstrated using a gas-phase electrophoresis approach, electrospray-differential mobility analysis (ES-DMA). Physical sizes, number and mass concentrations, and degrees of aggregation of HA, BSA, and AuNP were successfully quantified using ES-DMA hyphenated with inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy was employed complementarily for an orthogonal characterization of the assembly of HA with BSA-AuNP and the subsequent HA detachment. The results show that the surface packing density of HA on BSA-AuNP was proportional to the concentration of HA (C_HA) when C_HA ≤ 5 × 10^-3 μmol/L, and the equilibrium binding constant of HA on BSA-AuNP was identified as ≈ 4 × 10⁵ L/mol at pH 3. The pH-sensitive and enzyme-induced detachments of HA from BSA-AuNP were both successfully characterized using ES-DMA and ATR-FTIR. In the absence of enzymatic catalysis, the rate constant of HA detachment (k) was shown to increase by at least 3.7 times on adjusting the environmental acidity from pH 3 to pH 7. A significant enzyme-induced HA detachment was identified at pH 7, showing a remarkable increase of k by at least two times in the presence of an enzyme. This work provides a proof of concept for assembly of HA-based hybrid colloidal nanomaterials through the tuning of surface chemistry in the aqueous phase with the ability of in situ quantitative characterization, which has shown promise for the development of a variety of HA-derivative biomedical applications (e.g., drug delivery).

Glycosylated Nanoparticles for Cancer-Targeted Drug Delivery

Nanoparticles (NPs) are novel platforms that can carry both cancer-targeting molecules and drugs to avoid severe side effects due to nonspecific drug delivery in standard chemotherapy treatments. Cancer cells are characterized by abnormal membranes, metabolic changes, the presence of lectin receptors, glucose transporters (GLUT) overexpression, and glycosylation of immune receptors of programmed death on cell surfaces. These characteristics have led to the development of several strategies for cancer therapy, including a large number of carbohydrate-modified NPs, which have become desirable for use in cell-selective drug delivery systems because they increase nanoparticle-cell interactions and uptake of carried drugs. Currently, the potential of NP glycosylation to enhance the safety and efficacy of carried therapeutic antitumor agents has been widely acknowledged, and much information is accumulating in this field. This review seeks to highlight recent advances in NP stabilization, toxicity reduction, and pharmacokinetic improvement and the promising potential of NP glycosylation from the perspective of molecular mechanisms described for drug delivery systems for cancer therapy. From preclinical proof-of-concept to demonstration of therapeutic value in the clinic, the challenges and opportunities presented by glycosylated NPs, with a focus on their applicability in the development of nanodrugs, are discussed in this review.

Hyaluronic Acid as a Component of Natural Polymer Blends for Biomedical Applications: A Review

In this review, we provide a report on recent studies in the field of research on the blends of hyaluronic acid with other natural polymers, namely collagen and chitosan. Hyaluronic acid has attracted significant interest in biomedical and cosmetic applications due to its interesting properties. In recent years, blends of hyaluronic acid with other polymers have been studied for new materials development. New materials may show improved properties that are important in the biomedical applications and in cosmetic preparations. In this review paper, the structure, preparation, and properties of hyaluronic acid blends with collagen and chitosan have been discussed and examples of new materials based on such blends have been presented. A comparison of the currently available information in the field has been shown. Future aspects in the field of hyaluronic acid blends and their applications in the biomedical and cosmetic industry have also been mentioned.

Functionalized Graphene Oxide for Chemotherapeutic Drug Delivery and Cancer Treatment: A Promising Material in Nanomedicine

The usage of nanomaterials for cancer treatment has been a popular research focus over the past decade. Nanomaterials, including polymeric nanomaterials, metal nanoparticles, semiconductor quantum dots, and carbon-based nanomaterials such as graphene oxide (GO), have been used for cancer cell imaging, chemotherapeutic drug targeting, chemotherapy, photothermal therapy, and photodynamic therapy. In this review, we discuss the concept of targeted nanoparticles in cancer therapy and summarize the in vivo biocompatibility of graphene-based nanomaterials. Specifically, we discuss in detail the chemistry and properties of GO and provide a comprehensive review of functionalized GO and GO-metal nanoparticle composites in nanomedicine involving anticancer drug delivery and cancer treatment.

Immunogenicity-unwanted immune responses to biological drugs - can we predict them?

INTRODUCTION

Biological agents (BAs) target molecules involved in disease mechanisms and have modified the natural history of several immune-mediated disorders. All BAs are immunogenic, resulting in the formation of antidrug antibodies (ADAs), which can neutralize drug activity leading to loss of response and potential relapse, or serious adverse events such as infusion hypersensitivity reactions. The production of ADAs is the result of a specific adaptive immune response in which T and B cells are involved.

AREAS COVERED

Factors conditioning the immunogenicity of BAs, including drug-, treatment- and patient-related factors are currently the subject of many studies. Among them, a lot of attention is dedicated to define the impact of BAs structure, the effect of targeting (soluble or membrane) molecules, the impact of interruption of therapy as well as the role of genetic (HLA and non-HLA) predisposing factors and disease activity.

EXPERT OPINION

Knowledge of factors capable of influencing the immunogenicity of BAs may help to understand, in a predictive manner and at the single patient level, the presence of risk factors influencing the production of ADAs and their impact on clinical outcomes.

Hyaluronic Acid and Controlled Release: A Review

Hyaluronic acid (HA) also known as hyaluronan, is a natural polysaccharide—an anionic, non-sulfated glycosaminoglycan—commonly found in our bodies. It occurs in the highest concentrations in the eyes and joints. Today HA is used during certain eye surgeries and in the treatment of dry eye disease. It is a remarkable natural lubricant that can be injected into the knee for patients with knee osteoarthritis. HA has also excellent gelling properties due to its capability to bind water very quickly. As such, it is one the most attractive controlled drug release matrices and as such, it is frequently used in various biomedical applications. Due to its reactivity, HA can be cross-linked or conjugated with assorted bio-macromolecules and it can effectively encapsulate several different types of drugs, even at nanoscale. Moreover, the physiological significance of the interactions between HA and its main membrane receptor, CD44 (a cell-surface glycoprotein that modulates cell–cell interactions, cell adhesion and migration), in pathological processes, e.g., cancer, is well recognized and this has resulted in an extensive amount of studies on cancer drug delivery and tumor targeting. HA acts as a therapeutic but also as a tunable matrix for drug release. Thus, this review focuses on controlled or sustained drug release systems assembled from HA and its derivatives. More specifically, recent advances in controlled release of proteins, antiseptics, antibiotics and cancer targeting drugs from HA and its derivatives were reviewed. It was shown that controlled release from HA has many benefits such as optimum drug concentration maintenance, enhanced therapeutic effects, improved efficiency of treatment with less drug, very low or insignificant toxicity and prolonged in vivo release rates.