51
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AKT/PKB Signaling: Navigating the Network. Cell 2017; 169:381-405. [PMID: 28431241 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2017.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2252] [Impact Index Per Article: 321.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2017] [Revised: 03/29/2017] [Accepted: 03/31/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The Ser and Thr kinase AKT, also known as protein kinase B (PKB), was discovered 25 years ago and has been the focus of tens of thousands of studies in diverse fields of biology and medicine. There have been many advances in our knowledge of the upstream regulatory inputs into AKT, key multifunctional downstream signaling nodes (GSK3, FoxO, mTORC1), which greatly expand the functional repertoire of AKT, and the complex circuitry of this dynamically branching and looping signaling network that is ubiquitous to nearly every cell in our body. Mouse and human genetic studies have also revealed physiological roles for the AKT network in nearly every organ system. Our comprehension of AKT regulation and functions is particularly important given the consequences of AKT dysfunction in diverse pathological settings, including developmental and overgrowth syndromes, cancer, cardiovascular disease, insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes, inflammatory and autoimmune disorders, and neurological disorders. There has also been much progress in developing AKT-selective small molecule inhibitors. Improved understanding of the molecular wiring of the AKT signaling network continues to make an impact that cuts across most disciplines of the biomedical sciences.
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52
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Wang L, Huang D, Jiang Z, Luo Y, Norris C, Zhang M, Tian X, Tang Y. Akt3 is responsible for the survival and proliferation of embryonic stem cells. Biol Open 2017; 6:850-861. [PMID: 28483982 PMCID: PMC5483023 DOI: 10.1242/bio.024505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (PKB/Akt) pathway plays an important role in regulating cell proliferation, metabolism, and survival. However, the distinct roles of Akt isoforms (Akt1, Akt2, and Akt3) in pluripotent stem cell maintenance are not fully defined. Using mouse embryonic stem cells (ESCs), we show that direct inhibition of Akt activity leads to ESC apoptosis. The Akt3, but not Akt1 or Akt2, activity specifically regulates this effect. Inhibiting Akt3 also leads to a cell cycle arrest at G1 phase. These regulatory roles of Akt3 are dependent on its kinase activity. Blocking the expression of Akt1 plus Akt2 in ESCs does not affect cell survival or proliferation, although blocking Akt1 aggravates the apoptotic effect induced by depletion of Akt3. We further show that blocking Akt3 in ESCs results in significant nuclear accumulation of p53, as well as the activation of its downstream targets, such as Mdm2, p21, and Fas. Inhibiting p53 and its downstream targets partially rescued the effects caused by Akt3-depletion. Our results revealed an Akt3 isoform-specific mechanism for ESC survival and proliferation involving the control of p53 activity. Summary: We identified that Akt isoform 3, but not Akt1 or Akt2, specifically regulates embryonic stem cell survival and proliferation. Mechanistically, this is achieved partially through controlling the p53 pathway activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ling Wang
- Department of Animal Science, Institute for Systems Genomics, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA
| | - Delun Huang
- Department of Animal Science, Institute for Systems Genomics, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA.,Animal Reproduction Institute, Guangxi University, Nanning, 530004, People's Republic of China
| | - Zongliang Jiang
- Department of Animal Science, Institute for Systems Genomics, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA
| | - Yan Luo
- Department of Animal Science, Institute for Systems Genomics, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA
| | - Carol Norris
- Center for Open Research Resources and Equipment, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA
| | - Ming Zhang
- Animal Reproduction Institute, Guangxi University, Nanning, 530004, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiuchun Tian
- Department of Animal Science, Institute for Systems Genomics, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA
| | - Young Tang
- Department of Animal Science, Institute for Systems Genomics, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA
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53
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Vaden RM, Oswald NW, Potts MB, MacMillan JB, White MA. FUSION-Guided Hypothesis Development Leads to the Identification of N⁶,N⁶-Dimethyladenosine, a Marine-Derived AKT Pathway Inhibitor. Mar Drugs 2017; 15:md15030075. [PMID: 28294973 PMCID: PMC5367032 DOI: 10.3390/md15030075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2016] [Revised: 03/02/2017] [Accepted: 03/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Chemicals found in nature have evolved over geological time scales to productively interact with biological molecules, and thus represent an effective resource for pharmaceutical development. Marine-derived bacteria are rich sources of chemically diverse, bioactive secondary metabolites, but harnessing this diversity for biomedical benefit is limited by challenges associated with natural product purification and determination of biochemical mechanism. Using Functional Signature Ontology (FUSION), we report the parallel isolation and characterization of a marine-derived natural product, N6,N6-dimethyladenosine, that robustly inhibits AKT signaling in a variety of non-small cell lung cancer cell lines. Upon validation of the elucidated structure by comparison with a commercially available sample, experiments were initiated to understand the small molecule’s breadth of effect in a biological setting. One such experiment, a reverse phase protein array (RPPA) analysis of >50 kinases, indicated a specific cellular response to treatment. In all, leveraging the FUSION platform allowed for the rapid generation and validation of a biological mechanism of action hypothesis for an unknown natural product and permitted accelerated purification of the bioactive component from a chemically complex fraction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel M Vaden
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75235, USA.
| | - Nathaniel W Oswald
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75235, USA.
| | - Malia B Potts
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75235, USA.
- Cell & Molecular Biology Department, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA.
| | - John B MacMillan
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75235, USA.
| | - Michael A White
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75235, USA.
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Abstract
Small-molecule drug discovery has traditionally focused on occupancy of a binding site that directly affects protein function, and this approach typically precludes targeting proteins that lack such amenable sites. Furthermore, high systemic drug exposures may be needed to maintain sufficient target inhibition in vivo, increasing the risk of undesirable off-target effects. Induced protein degradation is an alternative approach that is event-driven: upon drug binding, the target protein is tagged for elimination. Emerging technologies based on proteolysis-targeting chimaeras (PROTACs) that exploit cellular quality control machinery to selectively degrade target proteins are attracting considerable attention in the pharmaceutical industry owing to the advantages they could offer over traditional small-molecule strategies. These advantages include the potential to reduce systemic drug exposure, the ability to counteract increased target protein expression that often accompanies inhibition of protein function and the potential ability to target proteins that are not currently therapeutically tractable, such as transcription factors, scaffolding and regulatory proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Craig M. Crews
- Departments of Molecular, Cellular & Developmental Biology; Chemistry; Pharmacology, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06511, USA
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56
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Potential therapeutic targets of epithelial-mesenchymal transition in melanoma. Cancer Lett 2017; 391:125-140. [PMID: 28131904 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2017.01.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2016] [Revised: 01/02/2017] [Accepted: 01/18/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Melanoma is a cutaneous neoplastic growth of melanocytes with great potential to invade and metastasize, especially when not treated early and effectively. Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is the process by which melanocytes lose their epithelial characteristics and acquire mesenchymal phenotypes. Mesenchymal protein expression increases the motility, invasiveness, and metastatic potential of melanoma. Many pathways play a role in promotion of mesenchymal protein expression including RAS/RAF/MEK/ERK, PI3K/AKT/mTOR, Wnt/β-catenin, and several others. Downstream effectors of these pathways induce expression of EMT transcription factors including Snail, Slug, Twist, and Zeb that promote repression of epithelial and induction of mesenchymal character. Emerging research has demonstrated that a variety of small molecule inhibitors as well as phytochemicals can influence the progression of EMT and may even reverse the process, inducing re-expression of epithelial markers. Phytochemicals are of particular interest as supplementary treatment options because of their relatively low toxicities and anti-EMT properties. Modulation of EMT signaling pathways using synthetic small molecules and phytochemicals is a potential therapeutic strategy for reducing the aggressive progression of metastatic melanoma. In this review, we discuss the emerging pathways and transcription factor targets that regulate EMT and evaluate potential synthetic small molecules and naturally occurring compounds that may reduce metastatic melanoma progression.
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57
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Pan T, Xu J, Zhu Y. Self-renewal molecular mechanisms of colorectal cancer stem cells. Int J Mol Med 2016; 39:9-20. [PMID: 27909729 PMCID: PMC5179189 DOI: 10.3892/ijmm.2016.2815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2015] [Accepted: 11/22/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Colorectal cancer stem cells (CCSCs) represent a small fraction of the colorectal cancer cell population that possess self-renewal and multi-lineage differentiation potential and drive tumorigenicity. Self-renewal is essential for the malignant biological behaviors of colorectal cancer stem cells. While the self-renewal molecular mechanisms of colorectal cancer stem cells are not yet fully understood, the aberrant activation of signaling pathways, such as Wnt, Notch, transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β)/bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) and Hedgehog-Gli (HH-GLI), specific roles mediated by cell surface markers and micro-environmental factors are involved in the regulation of self-renewal. The elucidation of the molecular mechanisms behind self-renewal may lead to the development of novel targeted interventions for the treatment of colorectal cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianhui Pan
- Laboratory of Gastroenterology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310009, P.R. China
| | - Jinghong Xu
- Department of Pathology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310009, P.R. China
| | - Yongliang Zhu
- Laboratory of Gastroenterology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310009, P.R. China
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58
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Kung JE, Jura N. Structural Basis for the Non-catalytic Functions of Protein Kinases. Structure 2016; 24:7-24. [PMID: 26745528 DOI: 10.1016/j.str.2015.10.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2015] [Revised: 09/18/2015] [Accepted: 10/04/2015] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Protein kinases are known primarily for their ability to phosphorylate protein substrates, which constitutes an essential biological process. Recently, compelling evidence has accumulated that the functions of many protein kinases extend beyond phosphorylation and include an impressive spectrum of non-catalytic roles, such as scaffolding, allosteric regulation, or even protein-DNA interactions. How the conserved kinase fold shared by all metazoan protein kinases can accomplish these diverse tasks in a specific and regulated manner is poorly understood. In this review, we analyze the molecular mechanisms supporting phosphorylation-independent signaling by kinases and attempt to identify common and unique structural characteristics that enable kinases to perform non-catalytic functions. We also discuss how post-translational modifications, protein-protein interactions, and small molecules modulate these non-canonical kinase functions. Finally, we highlight current efforts in the targeted design of small-molecule modulators of non-catalytic kinase functions, a new pharmacological challenge for which structural considerations are more important than ever.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer E Kung
- Cardiovascular Research Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Natalia Jura
- Cardiovascular Research Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA; Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA.
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59
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Jansen VM, Mayer IA, Arteaga CL. Is There a Future for AKT Inhibitors in the Treatment of Cancer? Clin Cancer Res 2016; 22:2599-601. [PMID: 26979397 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-16-0100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2016] [Accepted: 02/29/2016] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
An AKT inhibitor plus an antiestrogen exhibited no significant clinical activity in patients with ER(+)/HER2(-) breast cancer despite laboratory studies supporting an antitumor effect for both drugs combined. These results raise concerns about the development of AKT inhibitors in unselected patients whose tumors have unknown dependence on the PI3K/AKT pathway. Clin Cancer Res; 22(11); 2599-601. ©2016 AACRSee related article by Ma et al., p. 2650.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valerie M Jansen
- Breast Cancer Program, Vanderbilt-Ingram Cancer Center (VICC), Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Ingrid A Mayer
- Breast Cancer Program, Vanderbilt-Ingram Cancer Center (VICC), Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Carlos L Arteaga
- Breast Cancer Program, Vanderbilt-Ingram Cancer Center (VICC), Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee.
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60
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Yi KH, Lauring J. Recurrent AKT mutations in human cancers: functional consequences and effects on drug sensitivity. Oncotarget 2016; 7:4241-51. [PMID: 26701849 PMCID: PMC4826202 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.6648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2015] [Accepted: 11/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Precision oncology trials based on tumor gene sequencing depend on robust knowledge about the phenotypic consequences of the genetic variants identified in patients' tumors. Mutations in AKT1-3 occur in 3-5% of human cancers. Although a single hotspot mutation, E17K, is the most common, well characterized activating mutations account for a minority of Akt variants that have been identified in large tumor sequencing studies to date. In order to determine the potential clinical relevance of both common and rare Akt mutations, we expressed a set of over twenty recurrent Akt mutants in three different cell lines and evaluated activation of Akt pathway signaling and effects on growth. We determined their relative sensitivity to allosteric and ATP-competitive Akt inhibitors in clinical development. Most Akt mutants did not activate pathway signaling compared to wild type Akt and did not affect growth properties. In addition, the most common activating Akt mutations, including Akt1 E17K, L52R, and Q79K conferred neither sensitivity nor resistance to Akt inhibitors. Equivocal evidence was found that Akt1 D323H and Akt2 W80C mutants are relatively resistant to the allosteric Akt inhibitor MK-2206, but not an ATP-competitive inhibitor. Our results suggest that the vast majority of rare Akt variants are passenger mutations with no effect on drug sensitivity. The hypothesis that activating Akt mutations predict for Akt inhibitor sensitivity remains to be tested clinically, but is not yet supported by our preclinical data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyung H. Yi
- The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Josh Lauring
- The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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61
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Schmitz ML, Kracht M. Cyclin-Dependent Kinases as Coregulators of Inflammatory Gene Expression. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2015; 37:101-113. [PMID: 26719217 DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2015.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2015] [Revised: 10/22/2015] [Accepted: 10/23/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) exert a variety of functions through regulation of the cell cycle and gene expression, thus implicating them in diverse biological processes. Recent studies have deciphered the molecular mechanisms employed by nuclear CDKs to support the expression of inflammatory mediators. Induced transcription of many proinflammatory genes is increased during the G1 phase of the cell cycle in a CDK-dependent manner. This process involves the cytokine-induced recruitment of CDK6 to the nuclear chromatin fraction where it associates with transcription factors of the NF-κB, STAT, and AP-1 families. The ability of CDK6 to trigger the expression of VEGF-A and p16(INK4A) and to recruit the NF-κB subunit p65 to its target sites is largely independent of its kinase function. The involvement of CDKs in proinflammatory gene expression also allows therapeutic targeting of their functions to interfere with tumor-promoting inflammation or chronic inflammatory diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Lienhard Schmitz
- Institute of Biochemistry, Medical Faculty, Friedrichstrasse 24, Justus-Liebig-University, 35392 Giessen, Germany.
| | - Michael Kracht
- Rudolf-Buchheim-Institute for Pharmacology, Medical Faculty, Schubertstrasse 81, Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, 35392 Giessen, Germany.
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62
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Weisner J, Gontla R, van der Westhuizen L, Oeck S, Ketzer J, Janning P, Richters A, Mühlenberg T, Fang Z, Taher A, Jendrossek V, Pelly SC, Bauer S, van Otterlo WAL, Rauh D. Covalent-Allosteric Kinase Inhibitors. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2015; 54:10313-6. [PMID: 26110718 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201502142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2015] [Revised: 04/13/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Targeting and stabilizing distinct kinase conformations is an instrumental strategy for dissecting conformation-dependent signaling of protein kinases. Herein the structure-based design, synthesis, and evaluation of pleckstrin homology (PH) domain-dependent covalent-allosteric inhibitors (CAIs) of the kinase Akt is reported. These inhibitors bind covalently to a distinct cysteine of the kinase and thereby stabilize the inactive kinase conformation. These modulators exhibit high potency and selectivity, and represent an innovative approach for chemical biology and medicinal chemistry research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jörn Weisner
- Technische Universität Dortmund, Fakultät für Chemie und Chemische Biologie, Otto-Hahn-Strasse 6, 44227 Dortmund (Germany)
| | - Rajesh Gontla
- Technische Universität Dortmund, Fakultät für Chemie und Chemische Biologie, Otto-Hahn-Strasse 6, 44227 Dortmund (Germany)
| | | | - Sebastian Oeck
- Institute of Cell Biology (Cancer Research), Department of Molecular Cell Biology, University of Duisburg-Essen, Medical School (Germany)
| | - Julia Ketzer
- Department of Medical Oncology, Sarcoma Center, West German Cancer Center, University Duisburg-Essen, Medical School (Germany).,German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Heidelberg (Germany)
| | - Petra Janning
- Max-Planck-Institut für Molekulare Physiologie, Abteilung Chemische Biologie, Dortmund (Germany)
| | - André Richters
- Technische Universität Dortmund, Fakultät für Chemie und Chemische Biologie, Otto-Hahn-Strasse 6, 44227 Dortmund (Germany)
| | - Thomas Mühlenberg
- Department of Medical Oncology, Sarcoma Center, West German Cancer Center, University Duisburg-Essen, Medical School (Germany).,German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Heidelberg (Germany)
| | - Zhizhou Fang
- Technische Universität Dortmund, Fakultät für Chemie und Chemische Biologie, Otto-Hahn-Strasse 6, 44227 Dortmund (Germany)
| | - Abu Taher
- Department of Chemistry and Polymer Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Matieland (South Africa)
| | - Verena Jendrossek
- Institute of Cell Biology (Cancer Research), Department of Molecular Cell Biology, University of Duisburg-Essen, Medical School (Germany)
| | - Stephen C Pelly
- Department of Chemistry and Polymer Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Matieland (South Africa)
| | - Sebastian Bauer
- Department of Medical Oncology, Sarcoma Center, West German Cancer Center, University Duisburg-Essen, Medical School (Germany).,German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Heidelberg (Germany)
| | - Willem A L van Otterlo
- Department of Chemistry and Polymer Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Matieland (South Africa)
| | - Daniel Rauh
- Technische Universität Dortmund, Fakultät für Chemie und Chemische Biologie, Otto-Hahn-Strasse 6, 44227 Dortmund (Germany).
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63
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Weisner J, Gontla R, van der Westhuizen L, Oeck S, Ketzer J, Janning P, Richters A, Mühlenberg T, Fang Z, Taher A, Jendrossek V, Pelly SC, Bauer S, van Otterlo WAL, Rauh D. Kovalent-allosterische Kinase-Inhibitoren. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201502142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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64
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Monaghan RM, Whitmarsh AJ. A new role for an old enemy. eLife 2015; 4:e06424. [PMID: 25668745 PMCID: PMC4337629 DOI: 10.7554/elife.06424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Drugs that change the shape of AKT, a protein kinase that promotes tumor growth, may be more effective than drugs that only target its enzymatic activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard M Monaghan
- Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Alan J Whitmarsh
- Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom,
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