Crystallographic Characterization of a Synthetic 1:1 End-On Copper Dioxygen Adduct Complex

Supramolecular control of monooxygenase reactivity in a copper(ii) cryptate

We report on the formation and self-decomposition of Cu(ii)–hydroperoxo intermediates with a cryptand ligand. The second coordination sphere of the cryptand steers the oxidative reactivity of the intermediates towards the formation of an unprecedented N-oxide.

Theoretical view on a linear end-on manganese–dioxygen complex bearing a calix[4]arene ligand

The Mn–O–O angle of mononuclear manganese(iii)-superoxo complexes supported by zwitterionic calix[4]arene ligands can be modulated via solvent polarity perturbations and/or ligand size adjustment as indicated by DFT calculations.

The control of the electronic structure of dinuclear copper complexes of redox-active tetrakisguanidine ligands by the environment

The electronic structures of dinuclear copper complexes of the general formula [GFA(CuX₂)₂], where X = Br or Cl and GFA denotes a redox-active bridging Guanidino-Functionalized Aromatic ligand, were analysed and compared.

Developing mononuclear copper-active-oxygen complexes relevant to reactive intermediates of biological oxidation reactions

Active-oxygen species generated on a copper complex play vital roles in several biological and chemical oxidation reactions. Recent attention has been focused on the reactive intermediates generated at the mononuclear copper active sites of copper monooxygenases such as dopamine β-monooxygenase (DβM), tyramine β-monooxygenase (TβM), peptidylglycine-α-hydroxylating monooxygenase (PHM), and polysaccharide monooxygenases (PMO). In a simple model system, reaction of O2 and a reduced copper(I) complex affords a mononuclear copper(II)-superoxide complex or a copper(III)-peroxide complex, and subsequent H(•) or e(-)/H(+) transfer, which gives a copper(II)-hydroperoxide complex. A more reactive species such as a copper(II)-oxyl radical type species could be generated via O-O bond cleavage of the peroxide complex. However, little had been explored about the chemical properties and reactivity of the mononuclear copper-active-oxygen complexes due to the lack of appropriate model compounds. Thus, a great deal of effort has recently been made to develop efficient ligands that can stabilize such reactive active-oxygen complexes in synthetic modeling studies. In this Account, I describe our recent achievements of the development of a mononuclear copper(II)-(end-on)superoxide complex using a simple tridentate ligand consisting of an eight-membered cyclic diamine with a pyridylethyl donor group. The superoxide complex exhibits a similar structure (four-coordinate tetrahedral geometry) and reactivity (aliphatic hydroxylation) to those of a proposed reactive intermediate of copper monooxygenases. Systematic studies based on the crystal structures of copper(I) and copper(II) complexes of the related tridentate supporting ligands have indicated that the rigid eight-membered cyclic diamine framework is crucial for controlling the geometry and the redox potential, which are prerequisites for the generation of such a unique mononuclear copper(II)-(end-on)superoxide complex. Reactivity of a mononuclear copper(II)-alkylperoxide complex has also been examined to get insights into the intrinsic reactivity of copper(II)-peroxide species, which is usually considered as a sluggish oxidant or just a precursor of copper-oxyl radical type reactive species. However, our studies have unambiguously demonstrated that copper(II)-alkylperoxide complex can be a direct oxidant for C-H bond activation of organic substrates, when the C-H bond activation is coupled with O-O bond cleavage (concerted mechanism). The reactivity studies of these mononuclear copper(II) active-oxygen species (superoxide and alkylperoxide) will provide significantly important insights into the catalytic mechanism of copper monooxygenases as well as copper-catalyzed oxidation reactions in synthetic organic chemistry.

A N3S(thioether)-ligated Cu(II)-superoxo with enhanced reactivity

Previous efforts to synthesize a cupric superoxide complex possessing a thioether donor have resulted in the formation of an end-on trans-peroxo-dicopper(II) species, [{(Ligand)Cu(II)}2(μ-1,2-O2(2-))](2+). Redesign/modification of previous N3S tetradentate ligands has now allowed for the stabilization of the monomeric, superoxide product possessing a S(thioether) ligation, [((DMA)N3S)Cu(II)(O2(•-))](+) (2(S)), as characterized by UV-vis and resonance Raman spectroscopies. This complex mimics the putative Cu(II)(O2(•-)) active species of the copper monooxygenase PHM and exhibits enhanced reactivity toward both O-H and C-H substrates in comparison to close analogues [(L)Cu(II)(O2(•-))](+), where L contains only nitrogen donor atoms. Also, comparisons of [(L)Cu(II/I)](n+) compound reduction potentials (L = various N4 vs (DMA)N3S ligands) provide evidence that (DMA)N3S is a weaker donor to copper ion than is found for any N4 ligand-complex.

Transition metal complexes and the activation of dioxygen

In order to address how diverse metalloprotein active sites, in particular those containing iron and copper, guide O₂binding and activation processes to perform diverse functions, studies of synthetic models of the active sites have been performed. These studies have led to deep, fundamental chemical insights into how O₂coordinates to mono- and multinuclear Fe and Cu centers and is reduced to superoxo, peroxo, hydroperoxo, and, after O-O bond scission, oxo species relevant to proposed intermediates in catalysis. Recent advances in understanding the various factors that influence the course of O₂activation by Fe and Cu complexes are surveyed, with an emphasis on evaluating the structure, bonding, and reactivity of intermediates involved. The discussion is guided by an overarching mechanistic paradigm, with differences in detail due to the involvement of disparate metal ions, nuclearities, geometries, and supporting ligands providing a rich tapestry of reaction pathways by which O₂is activated at Fe and Cu sites.

Stepwise protonation and electron-transfer reduction of a primary copper-dioxygen adduct

The protonation–reduction of a dioxygen adduct with [LCu(I)][B(C6F5)4], cupric superoxo complex [LCu(II)(O2(•–))]+ (1) (L = TMG3tren (1,1,1-tris[2-[N(2)-(1,1,3,3-tetramethylguanidino)]ethyl]amine)) has been investigated. Trifluoroacetic acid (HOAcF) reversibly associates with the superoxo ligand in ([LCu(II)(O2(•–))]+) in a 1:1 adduct [LCu(II)(O2(•–))(HOAcF)](+) (2), as characterized by UV–visible, resonance Raman (rR), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), and X-ray absorption (XAS) spectroscopies, along with density functional theory (DFT) calculations. Chemical studies reveal that for the binding of HOAcF with 1 to give 2, Keq = 1.2 × 10(5) M(–1) (−130 °C) and ΔH° = −6.9(7) kcal/mol, ΔS° = −26(4) cal mol(–1) K(–1)). Vibrational (rR) data reveal a significant increase (29 cm(–1)) in vO–O (= 1149 cm(–1)) compared to that known for [LCu(II)(O2(•–))](+) (1). Along with results obtained from XAS and DFT calculations, hydrogen bonding of HOAcF to a superoxo O-atom in 2 is established. Results from NMR spectroscopy of 2 at −120 °C in 2-methyltetrahydrofuran are also consistent with 1/HOAcF = 1:1 formulation of 2 and with this complex possessing a triplet (S = 1) ground state electronic configuration, as previously determined for 1. The pre-equilibrium acid association to 1 is followed by outer-sphere electron-transfer reduction of 2 by decamethylferrocene (Me10Fc) or octamethylferrocene (Me8Fc), leading to the products H2O2, the corresponding ferrocenium salt, and [LCu(II)(OAcF)](+). Second-order rate constants for electron transfer (ket) were determined to be 1365 M(–1) s(–1) (Me10Fc) and 225 M(–1) s(–1) (Me8Fc) at −80 °C. The (bio)chemical relevance of the proton-triggered reduction of the metal-bound dioxygen-derived fragment is discussed.

Mechanistic insights into the oxidation of substituted phenols via hydrogen atom abstraction by a cupric-superoxo complex

To obtain mechanistic insights into the inherent reactivity patterns for copper(I)-O2 adducts, a new cupric-superoxo complex [(DMM-tmpa)Cu(II)(O2(•-))](+) (2) [DMM-tmpa = tris((4-methoxy-3,5-dimethylpyridin-2-yl)methyl)amine] has been synthesized and studied in phenol oxidation-oxygenation reactions. Compound 2 is characterized by UV-vis, resonance Raman, and EPR spectroscopies. Its reactions with a series of para-substituted 2,6-di-tert-butylphenols (p-X-DTBPs) afford 2,6-di-tert-butyl-1,4-benzoquinone (DTBQ) in up to 50% yields. Significant deuterium kinetic isotope effects and a positive correlation of second-order rate constants (k2) compared to rate constants for p-X-DTBPs plus cumylperoxyl radical reactions indicate a mechanism that involves rate-limiting hydrogen atom transfer (HAT). A weak correlation of (k(B)T/e) ln k2 versus E(ox) of p-X-DTBP indicates that the HAT reactions proceed via a partial transfer of charge rather than a complete transfer of charge in the electron transfer/proton transfer pathway. Product analyses, (18)O-labeling experiments, and separate reactivity employing the 2,4,6-tri-tert-butylphenoxyl radical provide further mechanistic insights. After initial HAT, a second molar equiv of 2 couples to the phenoxyl radical initially formed, giving a Cu(II)-OO-(ArO') intermediate, which proceeds in the case of p-OR-DTBP substrates via a two-electron oxidation reaction involving hydrolysis steps which liberate H2O2 and the corresponding alcohol. By contrast, four-electron oxygenation (O-O cleavage) mainly occurs for p-R-DTBP which gives (18)O-labeled DTBQ and elimination of the R group.

Spectroscopic and computational insight into the activation of O2 by the mononuclear Cu center in polysaccharide monooxygenases

Strategies for O2 activation by copper enzymes were recently expanded to include mononuclear Cu sites, with the discovery of the copper-dependent polysaccharide monooxygenases, also classified as auxiliary-activity enzymes 9-11 (AA9-11). These enzymes are finding considerable use in industrial biofuel production. Crystal structures of polysaccharide monooxygenases have emerged, but experimental studies are yet to determine the solution structure of the Cu site and how this relates to reactivity. From X-ray absorption near edge structure and extended X-ray absorption fine structure spectroscopies, we observed a change from four-coordinate Cu(II) to three-coordinate Cu(I) of the active site in solution, where three protein-derived nitrogen ligands coordinate the Cu in both redox states, and a labile hydroxide ligand is lost upon reduction. The spectroscopic data allowed for density functional theory calculations of an enzyme active site model, where the optimized Cu(I) and (II) structures were consistent with the experimental data. The O2 reactivity of the Cu(I) site was probed by EPR and stopped-flow absorption spectroscopies, and a rapid one-electron reduction of O2 and regeneration of the resting Cu(II) enzyme were observed. This reactivity was evaluated computationally, and by calibration to Cu-superoxide model complexes, formation of an end-on Cu-AA9-superoxide species was found to be thermodynamically favored. We discuss how this thermodynamically difficult one-electron reduction of O2 is enabled by the unique protein structure where two nitrogen ligands from His1 dictate formation of a T-shaped Cu(I) site, which provides an open coordination position for strong O2 binding with very little reorganization energy.

Quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics study of oxygen binding in hemocyanin

We report a combined quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics (QM/MM) study on the mechanism of reversible dioxygen binding in the active site of hemocyanin (Hc). The QM region is treated by broken-symmetry density functional theory (DFT) with spin projection corrections. The X-ray structures of deoxygenated (deoxyHc) and oxygenated (oxyHc) hemocyanin are well reproduced by QM/MM geometry optimizations. The computed relative energies strongly depend on the chosen density functional. They are consistent with the available thermodynamic data for oxygen binding in hemocyanin and in synthetic model complexes when the BH&HLYP hybrid functional with 50% Hartree-Fock exchange is used. According to the QM(BH&HLYP)/MM results, the reaction proceeds stepwise with two sequential electron transfer (ET) processes in the triplet state followed by an intersystem crossing to the singlet product. The first ET step leads to a nonbridged superoxo CuB(II)-O2(•-) intermediate via a low-barrier transition state. The second ET step is even more facile and yields a side-on oxyHc complex with the characteristic Cu2O2 butterfly core, accompanied by triplet-singlet intersystem crossing. The computed barriers are very small so that the two ET processes are expected to very rapid and nearly simultaneous.

Redox-controlled hydrogen bonding: turning a superbase into a strong hydrogen-bond donor

Herein the synthesis, structures and properties of hydrogen-bonded aggregates involving redox-active guanidine superbases are reported. Reversible hydrogen bonding is switched on by oxidation of the hydrogen-donor unit, and leads to formation of aggregates in which the hydrogen-bond donor unit is sandwiched by two hydrogen-bond acceptor units. Further oxidation (of the acceptor units) leads again to deaggregation. Aggregate formation is associated with a distinct color change, and the electronic situation could be described as a frozen stage on the way to hydrogen transfer. A further increase in the basicity of the hydrogen-bond acceptor leads to deprotonation reactions.

Excitation wavelength dependent O2 release from copper(II)-superoxide compounds: laser flash-photolysis experiments and theoretical studies

Irradiation of the copper(II)-superoxide synthetic complexes [(TMG3tren)Cu(II)(O2)](+) (1) and [(PV-TMPA)Cu(II)(O2)](+) (2) with visible light resulted in direct photogeneration of O2 gas at low temperature (from -40 °C to -70 °C for 1 and from -125 to -135 °C for 2) in 2-methyltetrahydrofuran (MeTHF) solvent. The yield of O2 release was wavelength dependent: λexc = 436 nm, ϕ = 0.29 (for 1), ϕ = 0.11 (for 2), and λexc = 683 nm, ϕ = 0.035 (for 1), ϕ = 0.078 (for 2), which was followed by fast O2-recombination with [(TMG3tren)Cu(I)](+) (3) and [(PV-TMPA)Cu(I)](+) (4). Enthalpic barriers for O2 rebinding to the copper(I) center (∼10 kJ mol(-1)) and for O2 dissociation from the superoxide compound 1 (45 kJ mol(-1)) were determined. TD-DFT studies, carried out for 1, support the experimental results confirming the dissociative character of the excited states formed upon blue- or red-light laser excitation.

Correlation of the electronic and geometric structures in mononuclear copper(II) superoxide complexes

The geometry of mononuclear copper(II) superoxide complexes has been shown to determine their ground state where side-on bonding leads to a singlet ground state and end-on complexes have triplet ground states. In an apparent contrast to this trend, the recently synthesized (HIPT3tren)Cu(II)O2(•-) (1) was proposed to have an end-on geometry and a singlet ground state. However, reexamination of 1 with resonance Raman, magnetic circular dichroism, and (2)H NMR spectroscopies indicate that 1 is, in fact, an end-on superoxide species with a triplet ground state that results from the single Cu(II)O2(•-) bonding interaction being weaker than the spin-pairing energy.

Characterization of metastable intermediates formed in the reaction between a Mn(II) complex and dioxygen, including a crystallographic structure of a binuclear Mn(III)-peroxo species

Transition-metal peroxos have been implicated as key intermediates in a variety of critical biological processes involving O2. Because of their highly reactive nature, very few metal-peroxos have been characterized. The dioxygen chemistry of manganese remains largely unexplored despite the proposed involvement of a Mn-peroxo, either as a precursor to, or derived from, O2, in both photosynthetic H2O oxidation and DNA biosynthesis. These are arguably two of the most fundamental processes of life. Neither of these biological intermediates has been observed. Herein we describe the dioxygen chemistry of coordinatively unsaturated [Mn(II)(S(Me2)N4(6-Me-DPEN))] (+) (1), and the characterization of intermediates formed en route to a binuclear mono-oxo-bridged Mn(III) product {[Mn(III)(S(Me2)N4(6-Me-DPEN)]2(μ-O)}(2+) (2), the oxo atom of which is derived from (18)O2. At low-temperatures, a dioxygen intermediate, [Mn(S(Me2)N4(6-Me-DPEN))(O2)](+) (4), is observed (by stopped-flow) to rapidly and irreversibly form in this reaction (k1(-10 °C) = 3780 ± 180 M(-1) s(-1), ΔH1(++) = 26.4 ± 1.7 kJ mol(-1), ΔS1(++) = -75.6 ± 6.8 J mol(-1) K(-1)) and then convert more slowly (k2(-10 °C) = 417 ± 3.2 M(-1) s(-1), ΔH2(++) = 47.1 ± 1.4 kJ mol(-1), ΔS2(++) = -15.0 ± 5.7 J mol(-1) K(-1)) to a species 3 with isotopically sensitive stretches at νO-O(Δ(18)O) = 819(47) cm(-1), kO-O = 3.02 mdyn/Å, and νMn-O(Δ(18)O) = 611(25) cm(-1) consistent with a peroxo. Intermediate 3 releases approximately 0.5 equiv of H2O2 per Mn ion upon protonation, and the rate of conversion of 4 to 3 is dependent on [Mn(II)] concentration, consistent with a binuclear Mn(O2(2-)) Mn peroxo. This was verified by X-ray crystallography, where the peroxo of {[Mn(III)(S(Me2)N4(6-Me-DPEN)]2(trans-μ-1,2-O2)}(2+) (3) is shown to be bridging between two Mn(III) ions in an end-on trans-μ-1,2-fashion. This represents the first characterized example of a binuclear Mn(III)-peroxo, and a rare case in which more than one intermediate is observed en route to a binuclear μ-oxo-bridged product derived from O2. Vibrational and metrical parameters for binuclear Mn-peroxo 3 are compared with those of related binuclear Fe- and Cu-peroxo compounds.

Dioxygen reactivity of new bispidine-copper complexes

The reactivity of copper complexes of three different second-generation bispidine-based ligands (bispidine = 3,7-diazabicyclo[3.3.1]nonane; mono- and bis-tetradentate; exclusively tertiary amine donors) with dioxygen [(reversible) binding of dioxygen by copper(I)] is reported. The UV-vis, electrospray ionization mass spectrometry, electron paramagnetic resonance, and vibrational spectra (resonance Raman) of the dioxygen adducts indicate that, depending on the ligand and reaction conditions, several different species (mono- and dinuclear, superoxo, peroxo, and hydroperoxo), partially in equilibrium with each other, are formed. Minor changes in the ligand structure and/or experimental conditions (solvent, temperature, relative concentrations) allow switching between the different forms. With one of the ligands, an end-on peroxodicopper(II) complex and a mononuclear hydroperoxocopper(II) complex could be characterized. With another ligand, reversible dioxygen binding was observed, leading to a metastable superoxocopper(II) complex. The amount of dioxygen involved in the reversible binding to Cu(I) was determined quantitatively. The mechanism of dioxygen binding as well as the preference of each of the three ligands for a particular dioxygen adduct is discussed on the basis of a computational (density functional theory) analysis.