Systematic review of intraoperative cholangiography in cholecystectomy

Usefulness of early post-operative liver function test monitoring after laparoscopic common bile duct exploration

BACKGROUND

This study examines the usefulness of early post-operative liver function test (LFT) monitoring in predicting retained choledocholithiasis after laparoscopic common bile duct exploration (LCBDE).

METHODS

Data on patients who had LCBDE over a 3-year period were collected retrospectively. Patients who had ongoing choledocholithiasis after unsuccessful LCBDE were considered for the test group and patients who had successful LCBDE were considered for the control group. Preoperative, day 1 post-operative and day 2 post-operative alkaline phosphatase (ALP), gamma glutamyl transferase (GGT), alanine transaminase (ALT) and bilirubin levels were recorded. Proportions of patients who had worsening LFTs were analysed in each group.

RESULTS

Proportions of patient who had worsening LFTs on day 1 were not statistically different between two groups and they were statistically equal on equivalence testing (two one-sided tests). On day 2, proportions of patient were again not statistically different. Bilirubin and ALT were statistically equivalent (P = 0.022 and P = 0.025 respectively) but GGT and ALP failed to achieve statistical equivalence (P = 0.062 and P = 0.138 respectively) on day 2. Twelve patients with normal appearing final intraoperative cholangiogram needed reintervention due to retained choledocholithiasis diagnosed subsequently. LFTs progressively improved despite presence of choledocholithiasis in eight of these 12 patients (75%) and only four were diagnosed by worsening post-operative LFTs during index admission.

CONCLUSION

LFTs in the early post-operative period are not useful in determining which patients require biliary imaging or intervention after an apparently successful LCBDE.

Surgical management of acute cholecystitis

BACKGROUND

Acute cholecystitis occurs in approximately 1% of patients with known gallstones. It presents as a surgical emergency and usually requires hospitalisation for treatment. It is associated with significant morbidity and mortality, particularly in the elderly. Cholecystectomy is advocated for acute cholecystitis; however, the timing of cholecystectomy and the value of the additional treatments have been a matter of debate. This review examines the available evidence regarding the optimal surgical management of patients with acute cholecystitis.

METHODS

A literature search was performed on the MEDLINE, EMBASE and WHO International Clinical Trials Registry Platform, databases for English language publications. The MeSH headings 'cholecystitis', 'acute', 'gallbladder', 'inflammation', 'surgery', 'cholecystectomy', 'laparoscopic', 'robotic', 'telerobotic' and 'computer-assisted' were used.

RESULTS

Data from eight randomised controlled trails and three population-based analyses show that early cholecystectomy for acute cholecystitis performed on the index admission is safe and not associated with increased conversion rates or morbidity in comparison to conservative treatment followed by elective cholecystectomy. Delaying cholecystectomy increases readmissions for gallstone-related events, complications, hospital stay and mortality in the elderly. Early cholecystectomy is also more cost-effective. Randomised trials addressing antibiotic use in acute cholecystitis suggest that antibiotics should be stopped on the day of cholecystectomy. Insufficient trials have been performed to address the optimal analgesia regime post cholecystectomy. Similarly, a lack of trials on intraoperative cholangiography and management of common bile duct stones in patients with acute cholecystitis means that treatment of concomitant bile duct stones should be based on institutional expertise and resource availability. As regards acute cholecystitis in elderly and high-risk patients, case series and retrospective studies would suggest that cholecystectomy is more effective and of lower mortality than percutaneous cholecystostomy. There is not enough evidence to support the routine use of robotic surgery, single-incision laparoscopic cholecystectomy or natural orifice transluminal endoscopic surgery (NOTES) in the treatment of acute cholecystitis.

CONCLUSIONS

Trial evidence would favour a policy of early laparoscopic cholecystectomy following admission with acute cholecystitis. The optimal approach to support early cholecystectomy is suggested but requires evidence from further randomised trials.

Laparoscopic cholecystectomy: consensus conference-based guidelines

INTRODUCTION

Laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC) is the gold standard technique for gallbladder diseases in both acute and elective surgery. Nevertheless, reports from national surveys still seem to represent some doubts regarding its diffusion. There is neither a wide consensus on its indications nor on its possible related morbidity. On the other hand, more than 25 years have passed since the introduction of LC, and we have all witnessed the exponential growth of knowledge, skill and technology that has followed it. In 1995, the EAES published its consensus statement on laparoscopic cholecystectomy in which seven main questions were answered, according to the available evidence. During the following 20 years, there have been several additional guidelines on LC, mainly focused on some particular aspect, such as emergency or concomitant biliary tract surgery.

METHODS

In 2012, several Italian surgical societies decided to revisit the clinical recommendations for the role of laparoscopy in the treatment of gallbladder diseases in adults, to update and supplement the existing guidelines with recommendations that reflect what is known and what constitutes good practice concerning LC.

Hepato-pancreato-biliary emergencies for the acute care surgeon: etiology, diagnosis and treatment

Hepatopancreatobiliary (HPB) emergencies include an ample range of conditions with overlapping clinical presentations and diverse therapeutic options. The most common etiologies are related to cholelithiasis (acute cholecystitis, pancreatitis, and cholangitis) and non-traumatic injuries (common bile duct or duodenal). Although the true incidence of HPB emergencies is difficult to determine due to selection and reporting biases, a population-based report showed a decline in the global incidence of all severe complications of cholelithiasis, primarily based on a reduction in acute cholecystitis. Even though patients may present with overlapping symptoms, treatment options can be varied. The treatment of these conditions continues to evolve and patients may require endoscopic, surgical, and/or percutaneous techniques. Thus, it is essential that a multidisciplinary team of HPB surgeons, interventional gastroenterologists and radiologists are available on an as needed basis to the Acute Care Surgeon. This focused manuscript is a contemporary review of the literature surrounding HPB emergencies in the context of the acute care surgeon. The main aim of this review is to offer an update of the diagnosis and management of HPB issues in the acute care setting to improve the care of patients with potential HPB emergencies.

Bile duct injuries following laparoscopic cholecystectomy

INTRODUCTION

Bile duct injuries occur rarely but are among the most dreadful complications following cholecystectomies.

METHODS

Prospective registration of bile duct injuries occurring in the period 1992-2013 at a tertiary referral hospital.

RESULTS

In total, 67 patients (47 women and 20 men) with a median age of 55 (range 14-86) years had a leak or a lesion of the bile ducts during the study period. Total incidence of postoperative bile leaks or bile duct injuries was 0.9% and for bile duct injuries separately, 0.4%. Median delay from injury to repair was 5 days (range 0-68 days). In 12 patients (18%), the injury was discovered intraoperatively. Bile leak was the major symptom in 59%, and 52% had a leak from the cystic duct or from assumed aberrant ducts in the liver bed of the gall bladder. Following the Clavien-Dindo classification, 39% and 45% were classified as IIIa and IIIb, respectively, 10% as IV, and 6% as V. In all, 31 patients had injuries to the common bile duct or hepatic ducts, and in these patients, 71% were treated with a hepaticojejunostomy. Of patients treated with a hepaticojejunostomy, 56% had an uncomplicated event, whereas 14% later on developed a stricture. Out of 36 patients with injuries to the cystic duct/aberrant ducts, 30 could be treated with stents or sphincterotomies and percutaneous drainage.

CONCLUSION

Half of injuries following cholecystectomies are related to the cystic duct, and most of these can be treated with endoscopic or percutaneous procedures. A considerable number of patients following hepaticojejunostomy will later on develop a stricture.

Surgery for common bile duct stones--a lost surgical skill; still worthwhile in the minimally invasive century?

PURPOSE

Techniques of laparoscopic bile duct exploration have been reported for over 20 years. Despite the simplicity and success of these procedures, they have failed to become commonplace in most surgical departments, as endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) has become the preferred method for dealing with bile duct stones. There is a risk of surgeons not obtaining or losing these skills, which may still be required as a definitive treatment when ERCP fails or is not available.

METHODS AND RESULTS

This paper describes these laparoscopic operations, which can be performed to enable a 'one-stop shop' treatment of common bile duct stones (CBDS) at the time of cholecystectomy. In particular, transcystic basket clearance of the bile duct is possible in two-thirds of cases with very little increase in morbidity compared to routine cholecystectomy. The selection of patients who are most likely to be successfully treated with this technique is defined. Some of the authors have published large study series and prospective randomised trials, further refining the choices available to the surgeon who, when performing operative cholangiography, is already halfway to bile duct exploration.

CONCLUSIONS

Surgery may reclaim this lost ground by offering an excellent and safe therapeutic option for many of the symptomatic CBDS.

Optimization of near-infrared fluorescence cholangiography for open and laparoscopic surgery

BACKGROUND

During laparoscopic cholecystectomy, common bile duct (CBD) injury is a rare but severe complication. To reduce the risk of injury, near-infrared (NIR) fluorescent cholangiography using indocyanine green (ICG) has recently been introduced as a novel method of visualizing the biliary system during surgery. To date, several studies have shown feasibility of this technique; however, liver background fluorescence remains a major problem during fluorescent cholangiography. The aim of the current study was to optimize ICG dose and timing for NIR cholangiography using a quantitative intraoperative camera system during open hepatopancreatobiliary (HPB) surgery. Subsequently, these results were validated during laparoscopic cholecystectomy using a laparoscopic fluorescence imaging system.

METHODS

Twenty-seven patients who underwent NIR imaging using the Mini-FLARE image-guided surgery system during open HPB surgery were analyzed to assess optimal dosage and timing of ICG administration. ICG was intravenously injected preoperatively at doses of 5, 10, and 20 mg, and imaged at either 30 min (early) or 24 h (delayed) post-injection. Next, the optimal doses found for early and delayed imaging were applied to two groups of seven patients (n = 14) undergoing laparoscopic NIR fluorescent cholangiography during laparoscopic cholecystectomy.

RESULTS

Median liver-to-background contrast was 23.5 (range 22.1–35.0), 16.8 (range 11.3–25.1), 1.3 (range 0.7–7.8), and 2.5 (range 1.3–3.6) for 5 mg/30 min, 10 mg/30 min, 10 mg/24 h, and 20 mg/24 h, respectively. Fluorescence intensity of the liver was significantly lower in the 10 mg delayed-imaging dose group compared with the early imaging 5 and 10 mg dose groups (p = 0.001), which resulted in a significant increase in CBD-to-liver contrast ratio compared with the early administration groups (p < 0.002). These findings were qualitatively confirmed during laparoscopic cholecystectomy.

CONCLUSION

This study shows that a prolonged interval between ICG administration and surgery permits optimal NIR cholangiography with minimal liver background fluorescence.

Evidence-Based Management of Common Gallstone-Related Emergencies

Gallstone-related disease is among the most common clinical problems encountered worldwide. The manifestations of cholelithiasis vary greatly, ranging from mild biliary colic to life-threatening gallstone pancreatitis and cholangitis. The vast majority of gallstone-related diseases encountered in an acute setting can be categorized as biliary colic, cholecystitis, choledocholithiasis, and pancreatitis, although these diagnoses can overlap. The management of these diseases is uniquely multidisciplinary, involving many specialties and treatment options. Thus, care may be compromised due to redundant tests, treatment delays, or inconsistent management. This review outlines the evidence for initial evaluation, diagnostic workup, and treatment for the most common gallstone-related emergencies. Key principles include initial risk stratification of patients to aid in triage and timing of interventions, early initiation of appropriate antibiotics for patients with evidence of cholecystitis or cholangitis, patient selection for endoscopic biliary decompression, and growing evidence in favor of early laparoscopic cholecystectomy for clinically stable patients.

Diagnosis and management of choledocholithiasis in the golden age of imaging, endoscopy and laparoscopy

Biliary lithiasis is an endemic condition in both Western and Eastern countries, in some studies affecting 20% of the general population. In up to 20% of cases, gallbladder stones are associated with common bile duct stones (CBDS), which are asymptomatic in up to one half of cases. Despite the wide variety of examinations and techniques available nowadays, two main open issues remain without a clear answer: how to cost-effectively diagnose CBDS and, when they are finally found, how to deal with them. CBDS diagnosis and management has radically changed over the last 30 years, following the dramatic diffusion of imaging, including endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) and magnetic resonance cholangiography (MRC), endoscopy and laparoscopy. Since accuracy, invasiveness, potential therapeutic use and cost-effectiveness of imaging techniques used to identify CBDS increase together in a parallel way, the concept of “risk of carrying CBDS” has become pivotal to identifying the most appropriate management of a specific patient in order to avoid the risk of “under-studying” by poor diagnostic work up or “over-studying” by excessively invasive examinations. The risk of carrying CBDS is deduced by symptoms, liver/pancreas serology and ultrasound. “Low risk” patients do not require further examination before laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Two main “philosophical approaches” face each other for patients with an “intermediate to high risk” of carrying CBDS: on one hand, the “laparoscopy-first” approach, which mainly relies on intraoperative cholangiography for diagnosis and laparoscopic common bile duct exploration for treatment, and, on the other hand, the “endoscopy-first” attitude, variously referring to MRC, EUS and/or endoscopic retrograde cholangiography for diagnosis and endoscopic sphincterotomy for management. Concerning CBDS diagnosis, intraoperative cholangiography, EUS and MRC are reported to have similar results. Regarding management, the recent literature seems to show better short and long term outcome of surgery in terms of retained stones and need for further procedures. Nevertheless, open surgery is invasive, whereas the laparoscopic common bile duct clearance is time consuming, technically demanding and involves dedicated instruments. Thus, although no consensus has been achieved and CBDS management seems more conditioned by the availability of instrumentation, personnel and skills than cost-effectiveness, endoscopic treatment is largely preferred worldwide.

Effectiveness of intraoperative cholangiography using indocyanine green (versus contrast fluid) for the correct assessment of extrahepatic bile ducts during day-case laparoscopic cholecystectomy

INTRODUCTION

During cholecystectomy, intraoperative cholangiography using contrast fluid (IOC-CF) is still the "gold standard" for biliary tract identification but has many associated pitfalls. A new IOC technique using indocyanine green (IOC-IG) appears to be promising. Here, we studied the effectiveness of IOC-IG (vs IOC-CF) during day-case laparoscopic cholecystectomy.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Over a 6-month period, we included 23 patients (with no cirrhosis or risk factors for choledocholithiasis) scheduled for day-case laparoscopic cholecystectomy. The primary efficacy criterion was the "analyzability rate" (i.e., the ability to identify the cystic duct, the cystic duct-hepatic duct junction, and the common bile duct) for the IOC-CF and IOC-IG procedures after dissection. Indocyanine green was infused under general anesthesia. The same near-infrared laparoscopic imaging system was used for IOC-IG and conventional visual inspection. IOC-CF was always attempted after dissection. Each patient served as his/her own control. Cholecystectomies were video-recorded for subsequent off-line, blind analysis.

RESULTS

The analyzability rate was 74 % for IOC-IG after dissection, 70 % for IOC-CF (p = 0.03), 26 % for conventional visual inspection, and 48 % for IOC-IG before dissection. When each IOC modality (conventional visual inspection, IOC-IG before and after dissection) was considered as a diagnostic test, the accuracy for simultaneous identification of the three anatomic elements was respectively 48, 52, and 74 %. No adverse events occurred during the IOC-IG procedure.

CONCLUSION

IOC-IG was feasible and safe. Our results suggest that this technique is more effective than IOC-CF for biliary tract identification after dissection and may constitute a powerful diagnostic test for the detection of extrahepatic ducts.

Role of sonography in assessing complications after laparoscopic cholecystectomy

Laparoscopic cholecystectomy, which was introduced to the arsenal of surgical procedures in the middle of the 1980s, is a common alternative for conventional cholecystectomy. Its primary advantage is less invasive character which entails shorter hospitalization and faster recovery. Nevertheless, the complications of both procedures are comparable and encompass multiple organs and tissues. The paper presents ultrasound presentation of the surgical bed after laparoscopic cholecystectomy and of complications associated with this procedure. In the first week following the surgery, the presence of up to 60 ml of fluid in the removed gallbladder bed should be considered normal in certain patients. The fluid will gradually absorb. In single cases, slight amounts of fluid are detected in the peritoneal cavity, which also should not be alarming. Carbon dioxide absorbs from the peritoneal cavity within two days. Ultrasound assessment of the surgical bed after cholecystectomy is inhibited by hemostatic material left during the surgery. Its presentation may mimic an abscess. In such cases, the decisive examination is magnetic resonance imaging but not computed tomography. On the other hand, rapidly accumulating fluid around the liver is an alarming symptom, particularly when there is inadequate blood supply or when peritoneum irritation symptoms develop. Depending on the suspected cause of the patient's deteriorating condition, it is essential to perform urgent computed tomography angiography, celiac angiography or endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography or magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography. The character of the fluid collection may be determined by its ultrasound-guided puncture. This procedure allows for aspiration of fluid and placement of a drain. Moreover, transabdominal ultrasound examination after laparoscopic cholecystectomy may contribute to the identification of: dropped stones in the right hypochondriac region, residual fragment of the gallbladder with possible concretions, undiagnosed choledocholithiasis, existing cholestasis, pseudoaneurysm of the hepatic artery, portal vein thrombosis and hematoma as well as hernias of the abdominal walls. Moreover, ultrasound examination helps to identify optimal sites in the abdominal integuments, which enables collision-free access to the peritoneal cavity.

Laparoscopic ultrasonography versus intra-operative cholangiogram for the detection of common bile duct stones during laparoscopic cholecystectomy: a meta-analysis of diagnostic accuracy

BACKGROUND

Routine intra-operative cholangiography (IOC) during laparoscopic cholecystectomy is often not performed because of increased operative time, radiation, and failure rate. Laparoscopic ultrasound (LUS) is a less invasive alternative but studies comparing it to IOC have been of small sample size. This study aims to assess the diagnostic accuracy of LUS in detecting common bile duct (CBD) stones compared to IOC.

METHODS

This meta-analysis was executed and reported in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta- Analyses (PRISMA) statement. 11 comparative studies (1994-2013) reporting on 12 patient groups were included. A bivariate model for diagnostic meta-analysis was used to attain overall pooled sensitivity and specificity for IOC and LUS, and their relationship assessed using a hierarchical summary receiver operating characteristic model with meta-regression.

RESULTS

IOC had a pooled sensitivity of 0.87 (95% CI 0.77-0.93) and a pooled specificity of 0.99 (95% CI 0.98-0.99) with no significant heterogeneity. The diagnostic Odds Ratio (OR) was 442 (95% CI 196-997) and pooled weighted Area Under the Curve (AUC) was 0.99 (95% CI: 0.98-1.0). LUS had a pooled sensitivity of 0.87 (95% CI 0.80-0.92) and a specificity of 1.00 (95% CI 0.99-1.00). Heterogeneity was significant for specificity results. The diagnostic Odds Ratio (OR) was 1171 (95% CI 372-3689) and the pooled, weighted AUC was 1 (95% CI: 0.99-1). Meta-regression did not identify factors that significantly predict diagnostic accuracy.

CONCLUSIONS

LUS is a potentially useful imaging modality to confirm the absence of CBD stones without needing to cannulate the biliary system.

Impact of routine intraoperative cholangiography during laparoscopic cholecystectomy on bile duct injury

BACKGROUND

The role of intraoperative cholangiography (IOC) in the diagnosis, prevention and management of bile duct injury (BDI) remains controversial. The aim of the present study was to determine the value of routine IOC in the diagnosis and management of BDI sustained during laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC) at a high-volume centre.

METHODS

A retrospective analysis of a single-institution database was performed. Patients who underwent LC with routine IOC between October 1991 and May 2012 were included.

RESULTS

Among 11,423 consecutive LCs IOC was performed successfully in 95.7 per cent of patients. No patient had IOC-related complications. Twenty patients (0.17 per cent) sustained a BDI during LC, and the diagnosis was made during surgery in 18 patients. Most BDIs were type D according to the Strasberg classification. The sensitivity of IOC for the detection of BDI was 79 per cent; specificity was 100 per cent. All injuries diagnosed during surgery were repaired during the same surgical procedure. Two patients developed early biliary strictures that were treated by percutaneous dilatation and a Roux-en-Y hepaticojejunostomy with satisfactory long-term results.

CONCLUSION

The routine use of IOC during LC in a high-volume teaching centre was associated with a low incidence of BDI, and facilitated detection and repair during the same surgical procedure with a good outcome.

Indocyanine green (ICG) fluorescent cholangiography during robotic cholecystectomy: results of 184 consecutive cases in a single institution

BACKGROUND/AIM

Laparoscopic cholecystectomy is currently the gold standard treatment for gallstone disease. Bile duct injury is a rare and severe complication of this procedure, with a reported incidence of 0.4% to 0.8% and is mostly a result of misperception and misinterpretation of the biliary anatomy. Robotic cholecystectomy has proven to be a safe and feasible approach. One of the latest innovations in minimally invasive technology is fluorescent imaging using indocyanine green (ICG). The aim of this study is to evaluate the efficacy of ICG and the Da Vinci Fluorescence Imaging Vision System in real-time visualization of the biliary anatomy.

METHODS

A total of 184 robotic cholecystectomies with ICG fluorescence cholangiography were performed between July 2011 and February 2013. All patients received a dose of 2.5 mg of ICG 45 minutes prior to the beginning of the surgical procedure. The procedures were multiport or single port depending on the case.

RESULTS

No conversions to open or laparoscopic surgery occurred in this series. The overall postoperative complication rate was 3.2%. No biliary injuries occurred. ICG fluorescence allowed visualization of at least 1 biliary structure in 99% of cases. The cystic duct, the common bile duct, and the common hepatic duct were successfully visualized with ICG in 97.8%, 96.1%, and 94% of cases, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

ICG fluorescent cholangiography during robotic cholecystectomy is a safe and effective procedure that helps real-time visualization of the biliary tree anatomy.

Gallstone pancreatitis: a review

Gallstone disease is the most common cause of acute pancreatitis in the Western world. In most cases, gallstone pancreatitis is a mild and self-limiting disease, and patients may proceed without complications to cholecystectomy to prevent future recurrence. Severe disease occurs in about 20% of cases and is associated with significant mortality; meticulous management is critical. A thorough understanding of the disease process, diagnosis, severity stratification, and principles of management is essential to the appropriate care of patients presenting with this disease. This article reviews these topics with a focus on surgical management, including appropriate timing and choice of interventions.

Laparoscopy in cholecysto-choledocholithiasis

Gallstone disease is one of the most common problems in the gastroenterology and is associated with significant morbidity. It may present as stones in the gallbladder (cholecystolithiasis) or in the common bile duct (choledocholithiasis). At the end of the 1980s laparoscopy was introduced and first laparoscopic cholecystectomy was performed in 1985. The laparoscopic technique for removing the gallbladder is the current treatment of choice, although indications for open surgery exist. To perform laparoscopic cholecystectomy as safe as possible multiple safety measures were developed. The gold standard for diagnosing and removing common bile duct stones is Endoscopic Retrograde Cholangiopancreatography (ERCP). The surgical treatment option for choledocholithiasis is laparoscopic cholecystectomy with common bile duct exploration. If experience is not available, than ERCP followed by elective cholecystectomy is by far the best therapeutic modality. The present review will discuss the use, benefits and drawbacks of laparoscopy in patients with cholecystolithiasis and choledocholithiasis.

Magnetic resonance cholangiography in assessing biliary anatomy in living donors: A meta-analysis

AIM: To establish the role of magnetic resonance cholangiography (MRC) in diagnosis of biliary anatomy in living-donor liver transplantation (LDLT) donors.

METHODS: A systematic review was performed by searching electronic bibliographic databases prior to March 2013. Studies with diagnostic results and fulfilled inclusion criteria were included. The methodological quality of the studies was assessed. Sensitivity, specificity and other measures of the accuracy of MRC for diagnosis of biliary anatomy in LDLT donors were summarized using a random-effects model or a fixed-effects model. Summary receiver operating characteristic (SROC) curves were used to summarize overall test performance. Publication bias was assessed using Deek’s funnel plot asymmetry test. Sensitivity analysis was adopted to explore the potential sources of heterogeneity.

RESULTS: Twelve studies involving 869 subjects were eligible to the analysis. The scores of Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Accuracy Studies for the included studies ranged from 11 to 14. The summary estimates of sensitivity, specificity, positive likelihood ratio, negative likelihood ratio, diagnostic OR of MRC in diagnosis of biliary anatomy in LDLT donor were 0.88 (95%CI: 0.84-0.92), 0.95 (95%CI: 0.93-0.97), 15.33 (95%CI: 10.70-21.95), 0.15 (95%CI: 0.11-0.20) and 130.77 (95%CI: 75.91-225.27), respectively. No significant heterogeneity was detected in all the above four measures. Area under SROC curve was 0.971. Little publication bias was noted across the studies (P = 0.557). Sensitivity analysis excluding a study with possible heterogeneity got a similar overall result, which suggested the little influence of this study on the overall results.

CONCLUSION: Our results suggest that MRC is a high specificity but moderate sensitivity technique in diagnosis of biliary anatomy in LDLT donors.

Routine cholangiography during rigid-hybrid transvaginal natural orifice transluminal endoscopic cholecystectomy

BACKGROUND

Transvaginal rigid-hybrid transluminal endoscopic cholecystectomy (tvCCE) has become a routine procedure in some laparoscopic departments in recent years. Although intraoperative cholangiography is an important adjunct to cholecystectomy, its feasibility and safety in tvCCE have not been demonstrated to date.

METHODS

Patients undergoing tvCCE between April and October 2012 were included in this study. An intraoperative cholangiogram was obtained routinely for all the patients. Patient characteristics, operation data, feasibility, and duration of the cholangiography as well as the postoperative course were recorded prospectively.

RESULTS

For 32 (97 %) of the 33 patients enrolled in this study, intraoperative cholangiography could be performed successfully. The median duration of cholangiography was 6 min (interquartile range, 4-7 min). Common bile duct stones were detected in three patients (10 %). Laparoscopic bile duct revision with the aid of one additional port was successful in two of these patients. One patient needed postoperative endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography due to the impossibility of extracting an impacted prepapillary concrement. One operation was converted to a four-port laparoscopic cholecystectomy. One additional port was used in 11 patients (33 %) and two additional ports in three patients (9 %). Three intraoperative minor complications (9 %) and one postoperative minor complication (3 %) occurred.

CONCLUSIONS

Intraoperative cholangiography during tvCCE is feasible, safe, and easy to perform. The need for intraoperative cholangiography no longer represents a contraindication for tvCCE.

Does routine intra-operative cholangiography reduce the risk of biliary injury during laparoscopic cholecystectomy? An evidence-based approach

The role of routine intra-operative cholangiography (IOC) during cholecystectomy remains controversial. The purpose of this evidence-based review was to analyze the role of IOC in the prevention and detection of biliary ductal injury during cholecystectomy. The relative rarity of biliary complications means that the randomized trials and meta-analyses that include fewer than 12,000 patients cannot answer the question. Therefore, only six comparative studies were included in this review. The conclusions of these studies were conflicting, half showing a protective effect of routine IOC and the other half showing no effect. Nevertheless, the U.S. and Swedish studies that included the largest number of patients suggested that, while not a panacea, routine IOC could prevent major biliary injuries (one ductal injury per 500 cholecystectomies). Finally, in the context of risk management, we must also emphasize the educational value of teaching young (and not so young) surgeons how to correctly interpret the operative cholangiogram.

Combined vascular and biliary fluorescence imaging in laparoscopic cholecystectomy

BACKGROUND

Bile duct injury in patients undergoing laparoscopic cholecystectomy is a rare but serious complication. Concomitant vascular injury worsens the outcome of bile duct injury repair. Near-infrared fluorescence imaging using indocyanine green (ICG) is a promising, innovative, and noninvasive method for the intraoperative identification of biliary and vascular anatomy during cholecystectomy. This study assessed the practical application of combined vascular and biliary fluorescence imaging in laparoscopic gallbladder surgery for early biliary tract delineation and arterial anatomy confirmation.

METHODS

Patients undergoing elective laparoscopic cholecystectomy were enrolled in this prospective, single-institutional study. To delineate the major bile ducts and arteries, a dedicated laparoscope, offering both conventional and fluorescence imaging, was used. ICG (2.5 mg) was administered intravenously immediately after induction of anesthesia and in half of the patients repeated at establishment of critical view of safety for concomitant arterial imaging. During dissection of the base of the gallbladder and the cystic duct, the extrahepatic bile ducts were visualized. Intraoperative recognition of the biliary structures was registered at set time points, as well as visualization of the cystic artery after repeat ICG administration.

RESULTS

Thirty patients were included. ICG was visible in the liver and bile ducts within 20 minutes after injection and remained up to approximately 2 h, using the ICG-filter of the laparoscope. In most cases, the common bile duct (83%) and cystic duct (97%) could be identified significantly earlier than with conventional camera mode. In 13 of 15 patients (87%), confirmation of the cystic artery was obtained successfully after repeat ICG injection. No per- or postoperative complications occurred as a consequence of ICG use.

CONCLUSION

Biliary and vascular fluorescence imaging in laparoscopic cholecystectomy is easily applicable in clinical practice, can be helpful for earlier visualization of the biliary tree, and is useful for the confirmation of the arterial anatomy.

Expertise-based randomized clinical trial of laparoscopic versus small-incision open cholecystectomy

Background

Several randomized clinical trials have compared laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC) and small-incision open cholecystectomy (SIOC). Most have had wide exclusion criteria and none was expertise-based. The aim of this expertise-based randomized trial was to compare healthcare costs, quality of life (QoL), pain and clinical outcomes after LC and SIOC.

Methods

Patients scheduled for cholecystectomy were randomized to treatment by one of two teams of surgeons with a preference for either LC or SIOC. Each team performed their specific method (SIOC or LC) as a first-choice operation, but converted to open cholecystectomy and common bile duct exploration when necessary. Intraoperative cholangiography was carried out routinely. The intention was to include all patients undergoing cholecystectomy, including emergency operations and procedures involving surgical training for residents.

Results

Some 74·9 per cent of all patients undergoing cholecystectomy were included. Of 355 patients randomized, 333 were analysed. Self-estimated QoL scores in 258 patients, analysed by the area under the curve method, were significantly lower in the SIOC group at 1 month after surgery: median 2326 (95 per cent confidence interval 2187 to 2391) compared with 2411 (2334 to 2502) for the LC group (P = 0·030). The mean(s.d.) duration of operation was shorter for SIOC: 97(41) versus 120(48) min (P &lt; 0·001). There were no significant differences between the groups in conversion rate, pain, complications, length of hospital stay or readmissions.

Conclusion

SIOC had comparable surgical results but slightly worse short-term QoL compared with LC. Registration number: NCT00370344 (http://www.clinicaltrials.gov).

Teaching cholangiography in a surgical residency program

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the time associated with routine cholangiography in a residency teaching program.

DESIGN

We retrospectively reviewed all patients undergoing laparoscopic cholecystectomy with intraoperative cholangiography by a single surgeon from April 2010 to September 2011. Cholangiogram time, demographic, and operative information was recorded, and factors associated with increased cholangiogram times were compared using Fisher's exact test, Kruskal-Wallis test, and linear regression; a p value <0.05 was considered significant.

SETTING

Academic-affiliated community-based surgical residency program.

PARTICIPANTS

10 surgical residents, PGY 1-5.

RESULTS

Laparoscopic cholecystectomy with intraoperative cholangiography was performed in 54 patients. The average patient age was 43 years; 69% were Caucasian and 74% were female. Cholangiography was successful in 96% of patients. The average time for cholangiograms performed by residents was 11 minutes (range, 6-22 minutes) and average operating room time was 68 minutes (range, 32-103 minutes). The average percentage of case time for cholangiography was 17% (range, 9%-63%). Minor technical complications related to cholangiograms occurred in 33% of cases, with the most common being difficulty with clipping the catheter (20%). There was no significant difference in completion rate or cholangiogram time based on resident level of experience (p > 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Intraoperative cholangiogram can be safely performed by residents at every level during laparoscopic cholecystectomy without adding significant time to the operation.

Is routine intraoperative cholangiogram necessary in the twenty-first century? A national view

INTRODUCTION

Intraoperative cholangiogram (IOC) can define biliary ductal anatomy. Routine IOC has been proposed previously. However, current surgeon IOC utilization practice patterns and outcomes are unclear.

METHODS

Nationwide Inpatient Sample 2004-2009 was queried for patients with acute biliary disease undergoing cholecystectomy (CCY). Analyses only included surgeons performing ≥10 CCY/year. We dichotomized surgeons into a routine IOC group vs. selective. Outcomes included bile duct injury, complications, mortality, length of stay, and cost.

RESULTS

Of the nonweighted patients, 111,815 underwent CCY. A total of 4,740 actual surgeon yearly volumes were examined. On average, each surgeon performed 23.6 CCYs and 7.9 IOCs annually, using IOC in 33 % of cases. The routine IOC group used IOC for 96 % of cases, whereas selective IOC group used IOC ∼25 % of the time. Routine IOC surgeons had no difference in mortality (0.4 %) or rate of bile duct injury (0.25 vs. 0.26 %), but higher overall complications (7.3 vs. 6.8 %, p = 0.04). Patients of routine IOC surgeons received more additional procedures and incurred higher costs.

CONCLUSION

Routine IOC does not decrease the rate of bile duct injury, but is associated with significant added cost. Surgeons' routine use of IOC is correlated with increased rates of postsurgical procedures, and is associated with increased overall complications. These data suggest routine IOC may not improve outcomes.

Recent advances in laparoscopic surgery

Laparoscopic surgery has been widely adopted and new technical innovation, procedures and evidence based knowledge are persistently emerging. This review documents recent major advancements in laparoscopic surgery. A PubMed search was made in order to identify recent advances in this field. We reviewed the recent data on randomized trials in this field as well as papers of systematic review. Laparoscopic cholecystectomy is the most frequently performed procedure, followed by laparoscopic bariatric surgery. Although bile duct injuries are relatively uncommon (0.15%-0.6%), intraoperative cholangiography still plays a role in reducing the cost of litigation. Laparoscopic bariatric surgery is the most commonly performed laparoscopic gastrointestinal surgery in the USA, and laparoscopic Nissen fundoplication is the treatment of choice for intractable gastroesophageal reflux disease. Recent randomized trials have demonstrated that laparoscopic gastric and colorectal cancer resection are safe and oncologically correct procedures. Laparoscopic surgery has also been widely developed in hepatic, pancreatic, gynecological and urological surgery. Recently, SILS and robotic surgery have penetrated all specialties of abdominal surgery. However, evidence-based medicine has failed to show major advantages in SILS, and the disadvantage of robotic surgery is the high costs related to purchase and maintenance of technology. Laparoscopic surgery has become well developed in recent decades and is the choice of treatment in abdominal surgery. Recently developed SILS techniques and robotic surgery are promising but their benefits remain to be determined.

Old is still gold

Common bile duct injury is infrequent but a serious complication of cholecystectomy. Variable biliary anatomy has an increased risk of iatrogenic injury. Intraoperative cholangiogram can be performed to provide a clearer picture of biliary anatomy. We report a case of a 71-year-old lady who underwent cholecystectomy for symptomatic gallstones. Anatomy initially was misinterpreted at laparoscopy when common bile duct was identified as a cystic duct, and a hole in what appeared to be Hartmann's pouch was in fact in common hepatic duct. If continued laparoscopically, further misconception could have led to the complete excision of the biliary system. Instead, procedure was converted to an open and intraoperative cholangiogram performed, which confirmed a diagnosis of Mirizzi syndrome. Following the identification of structures, subtotal cholecystectomy was completed. The patient made an uneventful recovery. This case highlights the limitations of laparoscopy and the importance of an intraoperative cholangiogram. Despite advances in surgical techniques, we continue to advocate a low threshold for its use during cholecystectomy as a useful tool in evaluating and minimising the extent of biliary injury.

Real-time near-infrared (NIR) fluorescent cholangiography in single-site robotic cholecystectomy (SSRC): a single-institutional prospective study

BACKGROUND

Bile duct injury is a rare but serious complication of laparoscopic cholecystectomy and the primary cause is misinterpretation of biliary anatomy. This may occur more frequently with a single-incision approach due to difficulties in exposing and visualizing the triangle of Calot. Intraoperative cholangiography was proposed to overcome this problem, but due to multiple issues, it is not used routinely. Indocyanine green (ICG) near-infrared (NIR) fluorescent cholangiography is non invasive and provides real-time biliary images during surgery, which may improve the safety of single-incision cholecystectomy. This study aims to evaluate the efficacy and safety of this technique during single-site robotic cholecystectomy (SSRC).

METHODS

Patients presenting with symptomatic biliary gallstones without suspicion of common bile duct stones underwent SSRC with ICG-NIR fluorescent cholangiography using the da Vinci Fluorescence Imaging Vision System. During patient preparation, 2.5 mg of ICG was injected intravenously. During surgery, the biliary anatomy was imaged in real time, which guided dissection of Calot's triangle. Perioperative outcomes included biliary tree visualizations, operative time, conversion and complications rates, and length of hospital stay.

RESULTS

There were 45 cases between July 2011 and January 2012. All procedures were completed successfully; there were no conversions and at least one structure was visualized in each patient. The rates of visualization were 93 % for the cystic duct, 88 % for the common hepatic duct, and 91 % for the common bile duct prior to Calot's dissection; after Calot's dissection, the rates were 97 % for all three ducts. Mean hospital stay was 1.1 days and there were no bile duct injuries or any other major complications.

CONCLUSION

Real-time high-resolution fluorescent imaging to identify the biliary tree anatomy during SSRC using the da Vinci Fluorescence Imaging Vision System was safe and effective.

ERCP and laparoscopic cholecystectomy in a combined (one-step) procedure: a random comparison to the standard (two-step) procedure

BACKGROUND

Current treatment of complicated calculous biliary disease typically involves a two-step procedure consisting of preoperative endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) followed by laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Alternatively, laparoscopic cholecystectomy with intraoperative cholangiogram (IOC) and intraoperative common bile duct exploration or ERCP at a later date may be performed. This study compared the benefits of the traditional two-step procedure to the novel one-step procedure for the management of calculous biliary disease.

METHODS

A retrospective review of 20 patients was conducted comparing one-step to two-step procedures for the management of choledocholithiasis. We define the one-step procedure to be a laparoscopic cholecystectomy with IOC to confirm the presence or absence of stones. Intraoperative ERCP with stone extraction was conducted if necessary as part of the one-step procedure.

RESULTS

A statistically significant difference existed between hospital charges for one-step ($58,145.30, SD $17,963.09) and two-step ($78,895.53, SD $21,954.78) procedures (p = 0.033). Other parameters (length of stay, preoperative days) trended toward significance; however, statistical significance was not achieved.

CONCLUSIONS

There appears to be a significant cost reduction with implementation of the one-step treatment of calculous biliary disease. Further research with a larger study population is necessary to determine the additional benefits of this procedure and to help augment the surgical endoscopists' armamentarium.

Evidence-based current surgical practice: calculous gallbladder disease

BACKGROUND

Gallbladder disease is common and, if managed incorrectly, can lead to high rates of morbidity, mortality, and extraneous costs. The most common complications of gallstones include biliary colic, acute cholecystitis, common bile duct stones, and gallstone pancreatitis. Ultrasound is the initial imaging modality of choice. Additional diagnostic and therapeutic studies including computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography, endoscopic ultrasound, and endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography are not routinely required but may play a role in specific situations.

DISCUSSION

Biliary colic and acute cholecystitis are best treated with early laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Patients with common bile duct stones should be managed with cholecystectomy, either after or concurrent with endoscopic or surgical relief of obstruction and clearance of stones from the bile duct. Mild gallstone pancreatitis should be treated with cholecystectomy during the initial hospitalization to prevent recurrence. Emerging techniques for cholecystectomy include single-incision laparoscopic surgery and natural orifice transluminal endoscopic surgery. Early results in highly selected patients demonstrate the safety of these techniques. The management of complications of the gallbladder should be timely and evidence-based, and choice of procedures, particularly for common bile duct stones, is largely influenced by facility and surgeon factors.

Fluorescence cholangiography during laparoscopic cholecystectomy: a feasibility study on early biliary tract delineation

BACKGROUND

Laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC) is one of the most commonly performed laparoscopic procedures. Bile duct injury is a rare but serious complication during this procedure, mostly caused by misidentification of the extrahepatic bile duct anatomy. Intraoperative cholangiography may be helpful to reduce the risk of bile duct injury; however, this is not a common procedure worldwide. Near-infrared fluorescence cholangiography (NIRFC) using indocyanine green (ICG) is a promising alternative for the identification of the biliary tree. This prospective observational study was designed to assess the feasibility and image quality of intermittent NIRFC during LC, using a newly developed laparoscopic fluorescence system.

METHODS

Consecutive patients undergoing elective LC were included and received a single intravenous injection of ICG directly after induction of anesthesia. During dissection of the base of the gallbladder and the cystic duct, the extrahepatic bile ducts were visualized by using a dedicated laparoscope, which offers both conventional state-of-the-art imaging and fluorescence imaging. Intraoperative recognition of the biliary structures was registered at set time points, as well as the establishment of the critical view of safety.

RESULTS

Fifteen patients were included between December 2011 and May 2012. ICG was visible in the liver and bile ducts within 20 min after intravenous administration and remained for approximately 2 h, using the fluorescence mode of the laparoscope. The common bile duct and cystic duct could be clearly identified at an early stage of the operation and, more important, significantly earlier than with the conventional camera mode. No per- or postoperative complications occurred as a consequence of ICG use.

CONCLUSIONS

Intermittent fluorescence imaging using a newly developed laparoscope and preoperative administration of ICG seems a useful aid in accelerating visualization of the extrahepatic bile ducts during laparoscopic cholecystectomy.

Prevention and treatment of bile duct injuries during laparoscopic cholecystectomy: the clinical practice guidelines of the European Association for Endoscopic Surgery (EAES)

BACKGROUND

Laparoscopic cholecystectomy is one of the most common surgical procedures in Europe (and the world) and has become the standard procedure for the management of symptomatic cholelithiasis or acute cholecystitis in patients without specific contraindications. Bile duct injuries (BDI) are rare but serious complications that can occur during a laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Prevention and management of BDI has given rise to a host of publications but very few recommendations, especially in Europe.

METHODS

A systematic research of the literature was performed. An international expert panel was invited to appraise the current literature and to develop evidence-based recommendations. Statements and recommendations were drafted after a consensus development conference in May 2011, followed by presentation and discussion at the annual congress of the EAES held in Torino in June 2011. Finally, full guidelines were consented and adopted by the expert panel via e-mail and web conference.

RESULTS

A total of 1,765 publications were identified through the systematic literature search and additional submission by panellists; 671 publications were selected as potentially relevant. Only 46 publications fulfilled minimal methodological criteria to support Clinical Practice Guidelines recommendations. Because the level of evidence was low for most of the studies, most statements or recommendations had to be based on consensus of opinion among the panel members. A total of 15 statements and recommendations were developed covering the following topics: classification of injuries, epidemiology, prevention, diagnosis, and management of BDI.

CONCLUSIONS

Because BDI is a rare event, it is difficult to generate evidence for prevention, diagnosis, or the management of BDI from clinical studies. Nevertheless, the panel has formulated recommendations. Due to the currently limited evidence, a European registry should be considered to collect and analyze more valid data on BDI upon which recommendations can be based.