101
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Cross-talk between FGF and other cytokine signalling pathways during endochondral bone development. Cell Biol Int 2012; 36:691-6. [PMID: 22803513 DOI: 10.1042/cbi20110352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
FGF (fibroblast growth factor)/FGFR (FGF receptor) signalling plays an essential role in both endochondral and intramembranous bone development. FGF signalling pathways are important for the earliest stages of limb development and throughout skeletal development. The activity and the outcome of this signalling pathway during bone development are also influenced by many other intracellular and extracellular signals. In this review, we focus on the interplay between FGF signalling and other pathways, which is tightly regulated both spatially and temporally during endochondral skeletal development.
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102
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Kirkham GR, Lovrics A, Byrne HM, Jensen OE, King JR, Shakesheff KM, Buttery LDK. Early gene regulation of osteogenesis in embryonic stem cells. Integr Biol (Camb) 2012; 4:1470-7. [PMID: 23042286 DOI: 10.1039/c2ib20164j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The early gene regulatory networks (GRNs) that mediate stem cell differentiation are complex, and the underlying regulatory associations can be difficult to map accurately. In this study, the expression profiles of the genes Dlx5, Msx2 and Runx2 in mouse embryonic stem cells were monitored over a 48 hour period after exposure to the growth factors BMP2 and TGFβ1. Candidate GRNs of early osteogenesis were constructed based on published experimental findings and simulation results of Boolean and ordinary differential equation models were compared with our experimental data in order to test the validity of these models. Three gene regulatory networks were found to be consistent with the data, one of these networks exhibited sustained oscillation, a behaviour which is consistent with the general view of embryonic stem cell plasticity. The work cycle presented in this paper illustrates how mathematical modelling can be used to elucidate from gene expression profiles GRNs that are consistent with experimental data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Glen R Kirkham
- Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, University Park, Nottingham, UK.
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103
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Biver E, Soubrier AS, Thouverey C, Cortet B, Broux O, Caverzasio J, Hardouin P. Fibroblast growth factor 2 inhibits up-regulation of bone morphogenic proteins and their receptors during osteoblastic differentiation of human mesenchymal stem cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2012; 427:737-42. [PMID: 23044416 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2012.09.129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2012] [Accepted: 09/27/2012] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Understanding the interactions between growth factors and bone morphogenic proteins (BMPs) signaling remains a crucial issue to optimize the use of human mesenchymal stem cells (HMSCs) and BMPs in therapeutic perspectives and bone tissue engineering. BMPs are potent inducers of osteoblastic differentiation. They exert their actions via BMP receptors (BMPR), including BMPR1A, BMPR1B and BMPR2. Fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2) is expressed by cells of the osteoblastic lineage, increases their proliferation and is secreted during the healing process of fractures or in surgery bone sites. We hypothesized that FGF2 might influence HMSC osteoblastic differentiation by modulating expressions of BMPs and their receptors. BMP2, BMP4, BMPR1A and mainly BMPR1B expressions were up-regulated during this differentiation. FGF2 inhibited HMSCs osteoblastic differentiation and the up-regulation of BMPs and BMPR. This effect was prevented by inhibiting the ERK or JNK mitogen-activated protein kinases which are known to be activated by FGF2. These data provide a mechanism explaining the inhibitory effect of FGF2 on osteoblastic differentiation of HMSCs. These crosstalks between growth and osteogenic factors should be considered in the use of recombinant BMPs in therapeutic purpose of fracture repair or skeletal bioengineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel Biver
- Physiopathology of Inflammatory Bone Diseases, EA 4490, University Lille North of France, Quai Masset, Bassin Napoléon, BP120, 62327 Boulogne sur Mer, France.
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104
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The osteogenesis of bacterial cellulose scaffold loaded with bone morphogenetic protein-2. Biomaterials 2012; 33:6644-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2012.05.071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2012] [Accepted: 05/29/2012] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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105
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Chakkalakal SA, Zhang D, Culbert AL, Convente MR, Caron RJ, Wright AC, Maidment ADA, Kaplan FS, Shore EM. An Acvr1 R206H knock-in mouse has fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva. J Bone Miner Res 2012; 27:1746-56. [PMID: 22508565 PMCID: PMC3556640 DOI: 10.1002/jbmr.1637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva (FOP; MIM #135100) is a debilitating genetic disorder of dysregulated cellular differentiation characterized by malformation of the great toes during embryonic skeletal development and by progressive heterotopic endochondral ossification postnatally. Patients with these classic clinical features of FOP have the identical heterozygous single nucleotide substitution (c.617G > A; R206H) in the gene encoding ACVR1/ALK2, a bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) type I receptor. Gene targeting was used to develop an Acvr1 knock-in model for FOP (Acvr1(R206H/+)). Radiographic analysis of Acvr1(R206H/+) chimeric mice revealed that this mutation induced malformed first digits in the hind limbs and postnatal extraskeletal bone formation, recapitulating the human disease. Histological analysis of murine lesions showed inflammatory infiltration and apoptosis of skeletal muscle followed by robust formation of heterotopic bone through an endochondral pathway, identical to that seen in patients. Progenitor cells of a Tie2(+) lineage participated in each stage of endochondral osteogenesis. We further determined that both wild-type (WT) and mutant cells are present within the ectopic bone tissue, an unexpected finding that indicates that although the mutation is necessary to induce the bone formation process, the mutation is not required for progenitor cell contribution to bone and cartilage. This unique knock-in mouse model provides novel insight into the genetic regulation of heterotopic ossification and establishes the first direct in vivo evidence that the R206H mutation in ACVR1 causes FOP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salin A Chakkalakal
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
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106
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Biver E, Hardouin P, Caverzasio J. The "bone morphogenic proteins" pathways in bone and joint diseases: translational perspectives from physiopathology to therapeutic targets. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2012; 24:69-81. [PMID: 22749766 DOI: 10.1016/j.cytogfr.2012.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2012] [Accepted: 06/06/2012] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
A large body of evidence supports an important role of bone morphogenic proteins (BMPs) pathways in skeletal development in the embryo. BMPs are also involved in skeletal homeostasis and diseases in the adult. They were first identified as major bone anabolic agents and recent advances indicate that they also regulate osteoclastogenesis and joint components via multiple cross-talks with other signaling pathways. This review attempts to integrate these data in the pathogenesis of bone and joints diseases, such as osteoporosis, fracture healing, osteoarthritis, inflammatory arthritis, or bone metastasis. The use of recombinant BMPs in bone tissue engineering and in the treatment of skeletal diseases, or future therapeutic strategies targeting BMPs signal and its regulators, will be discussed based on these considerations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel Biver
- Physiopathology of Inflammatory Bone Diseases, EA 4490, University Lille North of France, Quai Masset, Bassin Napoléon, BP120, 62327 Boulogne sur Mer, France.
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107
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Jeong CG, Zhang H, Hollister SJ. Three-dimensional polycaprolactone scaffold-conjugated bone morphogenetic protein-2 promotes cartilage regeneration from primary chondrocytes in vitro and in vivo without accelerated endochondral ossification. J Biomed Mater Res A 2012; 100:2088-96. [PMID: 22615065 DOI: 10.1002/jbm.a.33249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2011] [Accepted: 08/30/2011] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
As articular cartilage is avascular, and mature chondrocytes do not proliferate, cartilage lesions have a limited capacity for regeneration after severe damage. The treatment of such damage has been challenging due to the limited availability of autologous healthy cartilage and lengthy and expensive cell isolation and expansion procedures. Hence, the use of bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2), a potent regulator of chondrogenic expression, has received considerable attention in cartilage and osteochondral tissue engineering. However, the exact role of BMP-2 in cartilage repair has been postulated to promote both cartilage formation and subsequent cartilage degradation through hypertrophy and endochondral ossification. Furthermore, it is likely that the manner in which BMP-2 is presented to chondrocytes will influence the physiologic pathway (repair vs. degeneration). This study investigates the relative influence of BMP-2 on cartilage matrix and potential subsequent bone matrix production using primary chondrocytes seeded on designed 3D polycaprolactone (PCL) scaffolds with chemically conjugated BMP-2. The results show that chemically conjugated BMP-2 PCL scaffolds can promote significantly greater cartilage regeneration from seeded chondrocytes both in vitro and in vivo compared with untreated scaffolds. Furthermore, our results demonstrate that the conjugated BMP-2 does not particularly accelerate endochondral ossification even in a readily permissible and highly vascular in vivo environment compared with untreated PCL scaffolds. This study not only reveals the potential use of the BMP-2 conjugation delivery method for enhanced cartilage tissue formation but also gives new insights for the effects of conjugated BMP-2 on cartilage regeneration and osteochondral ossification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire G Jeong
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-2125, USA
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108
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Muiños-López E, Rendal-Vázquez ME, Hermida-Gómez T, Fuentes-Boquete I, Díaz-Prado S, Blanco FJ. Cryopreservation effect on proliferative and chondrogenic potential of human chondrocytes isolated from superficial and deep cartilage. Open Orthop J 2012; 6:150-9. [PMID: 22523526 PMCID: PMC3330760 DOI: 10.2174/1874325001206010150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2012] [Revised: 02/27/2012] [Accepted: 03/08/2012] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Objectives: To compare the proliferative and chondrogenic potential of fresh and frozen chondrocytes isolated from superficial and deep articular cartilage biopsies. Materials and Methodology: The study included 12 samples of fresh and frozen healthy human knee articular cartilage. Cell proliferation was tested at 3, 6 and 9 days. Studies of mRNA quantification, protein expression and immunofluorescence for proliferation and chondrogenic markers were performed. Results: Stimulation of fresh and frozen chondrocytes from both superficial and deep cartilage with fetal bovine serum produced an increase in the proliferative capacity compared to the non-stimulated control group. In the stimulated fresh cells group, the proliferative capacity of cells from the deep biopsy was greater than that from cells from the superficial biopsy (0.046 vs 0.028, respectively, p<0.05). There was also a significant difference between the proliferative capacity of superficial zone fresh (0.028) and frozen (0.051) chondrocytes (p<0.05). CCND1 mRNA and protein expression levels, and immunopositivity for Ki67 revealed a higher proliferative capacity for fresh articular chondrocytes from deep cartilage. Regarding the chondrogenic potential, stimulated fresh cells showed higher SOX9 and Col II expression in chondrocytes from deep than from superficial zone (p<0.05, T student test). Conclusions: The highest rate of cell proliferation and chondrogenic potential of fresh chondrocytes was found in cells obtained from deep cartilage biopsies, whereas there were no statistically significant differences in proliferative and chondrogenic capacity between biopsy origins with frozen chondrocytes. These results indicate that both origin and cryopreservation affect the proliferative and chondrogenic potential of chondrocytes.
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109
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Caron MMJ, Emans PJ, Surtel DAM, Cremers A, Voncken JW, Welting TJM, van Rhijn LW. Activation of NF-κB/p65 facilitates early chondrogenic differentiation during endochondral ossification. PLoS One 2012; 7:e33467. [PMID: 22428055 PMCID: PMC3299787 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0033467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2011] [Accepted: 02/09/2012] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND NF-κB/p65 has been reported to be involved in regulation of chondrogenic differentiation. However, its function in relation to key chondrogenic factor Sox9 and onset of chondrogenesis during endochondral ossification is poorly understood. We hypothesized that the early onset of chondrogenic differentiation is initiated by transient NF-κB/p65 signaling. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS The role of NF-κB/p65 in early chondrogenesis was investigated in different in vitro, ex vivo and in vivo endochondral models: ATDC5 cells, hBMSCs, chicken periosteal explants and growth plates of 6 weeks old mice. NF-κB/p65 activation was manipulated using pharmacological inhibitors, RNAi and activating agents. Gene expression and protein expression analysis, and (immuno)histochemical stainings were employed to determine the role of NF-κB/p65 in the chondrogenic phase of endochondral development. Our data show that chondrogenic differentiation is facilitated by early transient activation of NF-κB/p65. NF-κB/p65-mediated signaling determines early expression of Sox9 and facilitates the subsequent chondrogenic differentiation programming by signaling through key chondrogenic pathways. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE The presented data demonstrate that NF-κB/p65 signaling, as well as its intensity and timing, represents one of the transcriptional regulatory mechanisms of the chondrogenic developmental program of chondroprogenitor cells during endochondral ossification. Importantly, these results provide novel possibilities to improve the success of cartilage and bone regenerative techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marjolein M. J. Caron
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Caphri School for Public Health and Primary Care, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Pieter J. Emans
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Caphri School for Public Health and Primary Care, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Don A. M. Surtel
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Caphri School for Public Health and Primary Care, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Andy Cremers
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Caphri School for Public Health and Primary Care, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Jan Willem Voncken
- Department of Molecular Genetics, GROW School for Oncology and Developmental Biology, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Tim J. M. Welting
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Caphri School for Public Health and Primary Care, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Lodewijk W. van Rhijn
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Caphri School for Public Health and Primary Care, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, the Netherlands
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110
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Mugniery E, Dacquin R, Marty C, Benoist-Lasselin C, de Vernejoul MC, Jurdic P, Munnich A, Geoffroy V, Legeai-Mallet L. An activating Fgfr3 mutation affects trabecular bone formation via a paracrine mechanism during growth. Hum Mol Genet 2012; 21:2503-13. [PMID: 22367969 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/dds065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The fibroblast growth factor receptor 3 (FGFR3) plays a critical role in the regulation of endochondral ossification. Fgfr3 gain-of-function mutations cause achondroplasia, the most common form of dwarfism, and a spectrum of chondrodysplasias. Despite a significant number of studies on the role of FGFR3 in cartilage, to date, none has investigated the influence of Fgfr3-mediated effects of the growth plate on bone formation. We studied three mouse models, each expressing Fgfr3 mutation either ubiquitously (CMV-Fgfr3(Y367C/+)), in chondrocytes (Col II-Fgfr3(Y367C/+)) or in mature osteoblasts (Col I-Fgfr3(Y367C/+)). Interestingly, we demonstrated that dwarfism with a significant defect in bone formation during growth was only observed in mouse models expressing mutant Fgfr3 in the cartilage. We observed a dramatic reduction in cartilage matrix mineralization and a strong defect of primary spongiosa. Anomalies of primary spongiosa were associated with an increase in osteoclast recruitment and a defect of osteoblasts at the mineralization front. A significant decrease in bone volume, trabecular thickness and number was also observed in the trabecular bone. Interestingly, no anomalies in proliferation and differentiation of primary osteoblasts from CMV-Fgfr3(Y367C/+) mice were observed. Based on these data, we excluded a potential function of Fgfr3 directly on osteoblasts at 3 weeks of age and we obtained evidence that the disorganization of the growth plate is responsible for the anomalies of the trabecular bone during bone formation. Herein, we propose that impaired FGFR3 signaling pathways may affect trabecular bone formation via a paracrine mechanism during growth. These results redefine our understanding of endochondral ossification in FGFR3-related chondrodysplasias.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emilie Mugniery
- INSERM U781, Universite´ Paris Descartes, Hoˆ pital Necker-Enfants Malades, 75015 Paris, France
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111
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Orton EC, Lacerda CMR, MacLea HB. Signaling pathways in mitral valve degeneration. J Vet Cardiol 2012; 14:7-17. [PMID: 22364692 DOI: 10.1016/j.jvc.2011.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2011] [Accepted: 12/08/2011] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Heart valves exhibit a highly-conserved stratified structure exquisitely designed to counter biomechanical forces delivered over a lifetime. Heart valve structure and competence is maintained by heart valve cells through a process of continuous turnover extracellular matrix (ECM). Degenerative (myxomatous) mitral valve disease (DMVD) is an important disease associated with aging in both dogs and humans. DMVD is increasingly regarded as a disease with identifiable signaling mechanisms that control key genes associated with regulation and dysregulation of ECM homeostasis. Initiating stimuli for these signaling pathways have not been fully elucidated but likely include both mechanical and chemical stimuli. Signaling pathways implicated in DMVD include serotonin, transforming growth factor β (TGFβ), and heart valve developmental pathways. High circulating serotonin (carcinoid syndrome) and serotoninergic drugs are known to cause valvulopathy that shares pathologic features with DMVD. Recent evidence supports a local serotonin signaling mechanism, possibly triggered by high tensile loading on heart valves. Serotonin initiates TGFβ signaling, which in turn has been strongly implicated in canine DMVD. Recent evidence suggests that degenerative aortic and mitral valve disease may involve pathologic processes that mimic osteogenesis and chondrogenesis, respectively. These processes may be mediated by developmental pathways shared by heart valves, bone, and cartilage. These pathways include bone morphogenic protein (BMP) and Wnt signaling. Other signaling pathways implicated in heart valve disease include Notch, nitric oxide, and angiotensin II. Ultimately, increased understanding of signaling mechanisms could point to therapeutic strategies aimed at slowing or halting disease progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Christopher Orton
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Colorado State University, 1678 Campus Delivery, Fort Collins, CO 80523-1678, USA.
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112
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Schwaerzer GK, Hiepen C, Schrewe H, Nickel J, Ploeger F, Sebald W, Mueller T, Knaus P. New insights into the molecular mechanism of multiple synostoses syndrome (SYNS): mutation within the GDF5 knuckle epitope causes noggin-resistance. J Bone Miner Res 2012; 27:429-42. [PMID: 21976273 DOI: 10.1002/jbmr.532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Growth and differentiation factor 5 (GDF5), a member of the bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) family, is essential for cartilage, bone, and joint formation. Antagonists such as noggin counteract BMP signaling by covering the ligand's BMP type I (BMPRI) and type II (BMPRII, ActRII, ActRIIB) interaction sites. The mutation GDF5-S94N is located within the BMPRII interaction site, the so-called knuckle epitope, and was identified in patients suffering from multiple synostoses syndrome (SYNS). SYNS is characterized by progressive symphalangism, carpal/tarsal fusions, deafness and mild facial dysmorphism. Here we present a novel molecular mechanism of a GDF5 mutation affecting chondrogenesis and osteogenesis. GDF5-S94N exhibits impaired binding to BMPRII causing alleviated Smad and non-Smad signaling and reduced chondrogenic differentiation of ATDC5 cells. Surprisingly, chondrogenesis in mouse micromass cultures was strongly enhanced by GDF5-S94N. By using quantitative techniques (SPR, reporter gene assay, ALP assay, qPCR), we uncovered that this gain of function is caused by strongly reduced affinity of GDF5-S94N to the BMP/GDF antagonist noggin and the consequential lack of noggin inhibition. Thus, since noggin is upregulated during chondrogenic differentiation, GDF5-S94N exceeds the GDF5 action, which results in the phenotypic outcome of SYNS. The detailed molecular characterization of GDF5-S94N as a noggin-resistant growth factor illustrates the potential of GDF5 mutants in applications with defined therapeutical needs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerburg K Schwaerzer
- Institute for Chemistry and Biochemistry, Free University Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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113
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Dan H, Simsa-Maziel S, Reich A, Sela-Donenfeld D, Monsonego-Ornan E. The role of matrix gla protein in ossification and recovery of the avian growth plate. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2012; 3:79. [PMID: 22787455 PMCID: PMC3392708 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2012.00079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2012] [Accepted: 05/31/2012] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Extracellular matrix mineralization is an essential physiologic process in bone, teeth, and hypertrophic cartilage. Matrix Gla protein (MGP), an inhibitor of mineralization, is expressed by chondrocytes and vascular smooth muscle cells to inhibit calcification of those soft tissues. Tibial dyschondroplasia (TD), a skeletal abnormality apparent as a plug of non-vascularized, non-mineralized, white opaque cartilage in the tibial growth plate of avian species can serve as a good model for studying process and genes involved in matrix mineralization and calcification. In this work, we studied the involvement of MGP in the development of TD, as well as in the processes of spontaneous and induced recovery from this syndrome. First, we found that during normal bone development, MGP is expressed in specific time and locations, starting from wide-spread expression in the yet un-ossified diaphysis during embryonic development, to specific expression in hypertrophic chondrocytes adjacent to the chondro-osseous junction and the secondary ossification center just prior to calcification. In addition, we show that MGP is not expressed in the impaired TD lesion, however when the lesion begins to heal, it strongly express MGP prior to its calcification. Moreover, we show that when calcification is inhibited, a gap is formed between the expression zones of MGP and BMP2 and that this gap is closed during the healing process. To conclude, we suggest that MGP, directly or through interaction with BMP2, plays a role as ossification regulator that acts prior to ossification, rather then simple inhibitor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harel Dan
- Institute of Biochemistry and Nutrition, The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew UniversityRehovot, Israel
| | - Stav Simsa-Maziel
- Institute of Biochemistry and Nutrition, The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew UniversityRehovot, Israel
| | - Adi Reich
- Institute of Biochemistry and Nutrition, The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew UniversityRehovot, Israel
| | - Dalit Sela-Donenfeld
- Koret School of Veterinary Medicine, The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew UniversityRehovot, Israel
| | - Efrat Monsonego-Ornan
- Institute of Biochemistry and Nutrition, The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew UniversityRehovot, Israel
- *Correspondence: Efrat Monsonego-Ornan, Institute of Biochemistry and Nutrition, Faculty of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Quality Sciences, The Hebrew University, P.O. Box 12, Rehovot 76100, Israel. e-mail:
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Dranse HJ, Sampaio AV, Petkovich M, Underhill TM. Genetic deletion of Cyp26b1 negatively impacts limb skeletogenesis by inhibiting chondrogenesis. J Cell Sci 2011; 124:2723-34. [PMID: 21807937 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.084699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Cyp26b1, a retinoic acid (RA)-metabolising enzyme, is expressed in the developing limb bud, and Cyp26b1(-/-) mice present with severe limb defects. These malformations might be attributable to an RA-induced patterning defect; however, recent reports suggest that RA is dispensable for limb patterning. In this study, we examined the role of endogenous retinoid signalling in skeletogenesis using Cyp26b1(-/-) mice and transgenic mice in which Cyp26b1 is conditionally deleted under control of the Prrx1 promoter beginning at ~E9.5 (Prrx1Cre(+)/Cyp26b1(fl/fl)). We found that the limb phenotype in Prrx1Cre(+)/Cyp26b1(fl/fl) mice was less severe than that observed in Cyp26b1(-/-) animals and that a change in retinoid signalling contributed to the difference in phenotypes. We systematically examined the role of endogenous RA signalling in chondrogenesis and found that Cyp26b1(-/-) cells and limb mesenchymal cells treated with a CYP inhibitor, are maintained in a pre-chondrogenic state, exhibit reduced chondroblast differentiation and have modestly accelerated chondrocyte hypertrophy. Furthermore, Cyp26b1(-/-) mesenchyme exhibited an increase in expression of genes in a closely related tendogenic lineage, indicating that retinoid signals in the limb interfere with differentiation and maintain progenitor status. Together, these findings support an important function for RA in regulating the behaviour of mesenchymal progenitors, and their subsequent differentiation and maturation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helen J Dranse
- Biomedical Research Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3, Canada
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115
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Nishida T, Kubota S, Aoyama E, Janune D, Maeda A, Takigawa M. Effect of CCN2 on FGF2-induced proliferation and MMP9 and MMP13 productions by chondrocytes. Endocrinology 2011; 152:4232-41. [PMID: 21914781 DOI: 10.1210/en.2011-0234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
CCN2 (also known as connective tissue growth factor) interacts with several growth factors involved in endochondral ossification via its characteristic four modules and modifies the effect of such growth factors. Presently we investigated whether CCN2 interacts with fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2). Solid-phase binding assay, immunoprecipitation-Western blot analysis, and surface plasmon resonance (SPR) spectroscopy revealed that the C-terminal module of CCN2 (CT) directly bound to FGF2 with a dissociation constant of 5.5 nm. Next, we examined the combinational effects of CCN2 and FGF2 on the proliferation of and matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9 and -13 productions by cultured chondrocytes. FGF2 promoted not only the proliferation but also the production of MMP9 and -13, however, combined of FGF2 with CT module nullified the enhancement of both MMP productions and proliferation. To clarify the mechanism, we investigated the binding of CCN2 or its CT module to FGF receptor 1. As a result, we found that CCN2 bound to FGF receptor 1 with a dissociation constant of 362 nm, whereas the CT module did not. In addition, when we tested FGF signaling in chondrocytic HCS-2/8 cells stimulated by the combination of FGF2 with CT module, the level of ERK1/2, p38 MAPK, and c-Jun N-terminal kinase phosphorylation was decreased compared with that found with FGF2 alone. These findings suggest that CCN2 may regulate the proliferation and matrix degradation of chondrocytes by forming a complex with FGF2 as a novel modulator of FGF2 functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takashi Nishida
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Dentistry, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2-5-1, Shikata-cho, Okayama 700-8525, Japan
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Shu B, Zhang M, Xie R, Wang M, Jin H, Hou W, Tang D, Harris SE, Mishina Y, O'Keefe RJ, Hilton MJ, Wang Y, Chen D. BMP2, but not BMP4, is crucial for chondrocyte proliferation and maturation during endochondral bone development. J Cell Sci 2011; 124:3428-40. [PMID: 21984813 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.083659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 179] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The BMP signaling pathway has a crucial role in chondrocyte proliferation and maturation during endochondral bone development. To investigate the specific function of the Bmp2 and Bmp4 genes in growth plate chondrocytes during cartilage development, we generated chondrocyte-specific Bmp2 and Bmp4 conditional knockout (cKO) mice and Bmp2,Bmp4 double knockout (dKO) mice. We found that deletion of Bmp2 and Bmp4 genes or the Bmp2 gene alone results in a severe chondrodysplasia phenotype, whereas deletion of the Bmp4 gene alone produces a minor cartilage phenotype. Both dKO and Bmp2 cKO mice exhibit severe disorganization of chondrocytes within the growth plate region and display profound defects in chondrocyte proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis. To understand the mechanism by which BMP2 regulates these processes, we explored the specific relationship between BMP2 and Runx2, a key regulator of chondrocyte differentiation. We found that BMP2 induces Runx2 expression at both the transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels. BMP2 enhances Runx2 protein levels through inhibition of CDK4 and subsequent prevention of Runx2 ubiquitylation and proteasomal degradation. Our studies provide novel insights into the genetic control and molecular mechanism of BMP signaling during cartilage development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bing Shu
- Department of Orthopaedics and Rehabilitation, Center for Musculoskeletal Research, University of Rochester School of Medicine, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
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117
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Kinning E, McDevitt H, Duncan R, Ahmed SF. A multidisciplinary approach to understanding skeletal dysplasias. Expert Rev Endocrinol Metab 2011; 6:731-743. [PMID: 30780879 DOI: 10.1586/eem.11.61] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The skeletal dysplasias are a heterogeneous group of conditions of abnormal cartilage and bone development, resulting in a wide range of phenotypes of variable severity from perinatal lethality to mild short stature. Elucidation of the molecular mechanisms underlying these disorders is allowing us to understand more about the etiology of these conditions and classify them based upon the underlying gene defect. This article will discuss the development of bone and cartilage in relation to these conditions, present a clinical approach to their diagnosis and management, and consider new avenues of therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esther Kinning
- a Department of Clinical Genetics, Ferguson Smith Centre, Royal Hospital for Sick Children (Yorkhill), Dalnair Street, Glasgow, G3 8SJ, UK.
| | - Helen McDevitt
- b Department of Neonatology, Royal Hospital for Sick Children (Yorkhill), Dalnair Street, Glasgow, G3 8SJ, UK
| | - Rod Duncan
- c Department of Orthopaedics, Royal Hospital for Sick Children (Yorkhill), Dalnair Street, Glasgow, G3 8SJ, UK
| | - S Faisal Ahmed
- d Department of Child Health, University of Glasgow, Royal Hospital for Sick Children (Yorkhill), Dalnair Street, Glasgow, G3 8SJ, UK
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118
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Intercellular signaling pathways active during and after growth and differentiation of the lumbar vertebral growth plate. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 2011; 36:1071-80. [PMID: 21245780 DOI: 10.1097/brs.0b013e3181f7a3ca] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
STUDY DESIGN Vertebral growth plates at different postnatal ages were assessed for active intercellular signaling pathways. OBJECTIVE To generate a spatial and temporal map of the major signaling pathways active in the postnatal mouse lumbar vertebral growth plate. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA The growth of all long bones is known to occur by cartilaginous growth plates. The growth plate is composed of layers of chondrocyets that actively proliferate, differentiate, die and, are replaced by bone. The role of major cell signaling pathways has been suggested for regulation of the fetal long bones. But not much is known about the molecular or cellular signals that control the postnatal vertebral growth plate and hence postnatal vertebral bone growth. Understanding such molecular mechanisms will help design therapeutic treatments for vertebral growth disorders such as scoliosis. METHODS Antibodies against activated downstream intermediates were used to identify cells in the growth plate responding to BMP, TGFβ, and FGF in cryosections of lumbar vertebrae from different postnatal age mice to identify the zones that were responding to these signals. Reporter mice were used to identify the chondrocytes responding to hedgehog (Ihh), and Wnt signaling. RESULTS We present a spatial/temporal map of these signaling pathways during growth, and differentiation of the mouse lumbar vertebral growth plate. CONCLUSION During growth and differentiation of the vertebral growth plate, its different components respond at different times to different intercellular signaling ligands. Response to most of these signals is dramatically downregulated at the end of vertebral growth.
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119
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von Einem S, Erler S, Bigl K, Frerich B, Schwarz E. The pro-form of BMP-2 exhibits a delayed and reduced activity when compared to mature BMP-2. Growth Factors 2011; 29:63-71. [PMID: 21391795 DOI: 10.3109/08977194.2011.561798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Pro-forms of growth factors receive increasing attention since it was shown that they can affect the function(s) of the mature proteins. Here, we extend our previous investigations on the biological function of the pro-form of bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2). We demonstrate that proBMP-2, upon prolonged incubation with C2C12 cells, induces alkaline phosphatase, a marker enzyme for osteoblastic differentiation. Expression studies with three different bone marker transcripts reveal that proBMP-2 induces bone-specific transcripts, however, to a smaller extent than the mature growth factor. To resolve this finding at the protein level, the fate of proBMP-2 and BMP-2 was studied in cell culture. We demonstrate that both proteins become internalized, and proBMP-2 is processed to mature BMP-2 within the cells. The data presented here suggest that proBMP-2 elicits biological functions as mature BMP-2 at a delayed and reduced level, which might depend on intracellular cleavage and subsequent secretion as mature BMP-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina von Einem
- Institut für Biochemie und Biotechnologie, Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg, Halle, Germany.
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120
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Fukutake T. Cerebral autosomal recessive arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy (CARASIL): from discovery to gene identification. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 2011; 20:85-93. [PMID: 21215656 DOI: 10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2010.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2010] [Accepted: 11/01/2010] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Cerebral autosomal recessive arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy (CARASIL) is a single-gene disorder directly affecting the cerebral small blood vessels, that is caused by mutations in the HTRA1 gene encoding HtrA serine peptidase/protease 1 (HTRA1). CARASIL is the second known genetic form of ischemic, nonhypertensive, cerebral small-vessel disease with an identified gene, along with cerebral autosomal dominant arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy (CADASIL). The exact prevalence of CARASIL is currently unknown, and to date approximately 50 patients have been reported, most of them from Japan and two from China. Genetically, no founder haplotype has been identified, and thus the disease is expected to be found more widely. The main clinical manifestations of CARASIL are ischemic stroke or stepwise deterioration in brain functions, progressive dementia, premature baldness, and attacks of severe low back pain or spondylosis deformans/disk herniation. The most characteristic findings on brain magnetic resonance imaging are diffuse white matter changes and multiple lacunar infarctions in the basal ganglia and thalamus. Histopathologically, CARASIL is characterized by intense arteriosclerosis, mainly in the small penetrating arteries, without granular osmiophilic materials or amyloid deposition. CARASIL is a prototype single-gene disorder of cerebral small vessels secondary to and distinct from CADASIL. CARASIL-associated mutant HTRA1 exhibited decreased protease activity and failed to repress transforming growth factor-β family signaling, indicating that the increased signaling causes arteriopathy in CARASIL. Therefore, HTRA1 represents another new gene to be considered in future studies of cerebral small-vessel diseases, as well as alopecia and degenerative vertebral/disk diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toshio Fukutake
- Department of Neurology, Kameda Medical Center, Kamogawa, Chiba, Japan.
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121
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Enhancement of subchondral bone quality by alendronate administration for the reduction of cartilage degeneration in the early phase of experimental osteoarthritis. Clin Exp Med 2011; 11:235-43. [PMID: 21305336 DOI: 10.1007/s10238-011-0131-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2010] [Accepted: 01/14/2011] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
To evaluate the effects of alendronate (ALN) on the subchondral bone quality and cartilage degeneration in the early phase of experimental model of osteoarthritis after anterior cruciate ligament transaction (ACLT). Thirty male adult healthy Japanese white rabbits after right ACLT or sham operation were divided into three groups (n = 10 per group): Sham; ACLT + ALN [after ACLT, the rabbits were treated with ALN daily starting from 4 days after surgery (10 μg/kg/d subcutaneously)]; and ACLT + NS group (after ACLT, the rabbits were injected saline as a placebo). At 60 days postsurgery, specimens from the affected knees were harvested. Histological analysis (HE and Safranin-O staining) as well as Mankin score were carried out to assess the cartilage degradation. BMP-2 and MMP-13 immunohistochemistry were also performed to demonstrate the alterations of cartilage molecular metabolism. Subchondral bone quality was evaluated by bone mineral density (BMD) and microstructure histomorphometry assay. For bone mineral density evaluation, 1/4 distal femurs, medial and lateral regions of femoral condylus were scanned with dual X-ray absorptiometry to assess the subchondral bone mass. Giemsa, von Kossa stain, and fluorescence technique for undecalcified bone section were carried out to examine the morphometry of the subchondral trabecular bone and subchondral plate. Histological and Mankin score analyses displayed that ALN treatment markedly reduced cartilage lesions and delayed the cartilage degeneration in OA joints. Immunohistochemistry assay further indicated that this cartilage-protective role of ALN was associated with elevating BMP-2 while inhibiting MMP-13 expression. BMD assessment demonstrated that ALN treatment significantly suppressed subchondral bone resorption. The results from histomorphometry assay of subchondral bone revealed that ALN treatment markedly increased the percent trabecular area (BV/TV), trabecular thickness (Tb.Th), and trabecular number (Tb.N). Moreover, both thickness and the porosity of the subchondral plate in ACLT + ALN group presented significantly higher than that in ACLT + NS group, while no significant difference was found between ACLT + ALN and Sham group. ALN plays an important role in cartilage protection in OA joints that is associated with the improvement of subchondral bone quality through reduction of subchondral bone resorption. ALN could be potentially used as a disease-modifying strategy to limit the progression of OA.
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122
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Interaction of TGFβ and BMP signaling pathways during chondrogenesis. PLoS One 2011; 6:e16421. [PMID: 21297990 PMCID: PMC3030581 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0016421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2010] [Accepted: 12/29/2010] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
TGFβ and BMP signaling pathways exhibit antagonistic activities during the development of many tissues. Although the crosstalk between BMP and TGFβ signaling pathways is well established in bone development, the relationship between these two pathways is less well defined during cartilage development and postnatal homeostasis. We generated hypomorphic mouse models of cartilage-specific loss of BMP and TGFβ signaling to assess the interaction of these pathways in postnatal growth plate homeostasis. We further used the chondrogenic ATDC5 cell line to test effects of BMP and TGFβ signaling on each other's downstream targets. We found that conditional deletion of Smad1 in chondrocytes resulted in a shortening of the growth plate. The addition of Smad5 haploinsufficiency led to a more severe phenotype with shorter prehypertrophic and hypertrophic zones and decreased chondrocyte proliferation. The opposite growth plate phenotype was observed in a transgenic mouse model of decreased chondrocytic TGFβ signaling that was generated by expressing a dominant negative form of the TGFβ receptor I (ΔTβRI) in cartilage. Histological analysis demonstrated elongated growth plates with enhanced Ihh expression, as well as an increased proliferation rate with altered production of extracellular matrix components. In contrast, in chondrogenic ATDC5 cells, TGFβ was able to enhance BMP signaling, while BMP2 significantly reduces levels of TGF signaling. In summary, our data demonstrate that during endochondral ossification, BMP and TGFβ signaling can have antagonistic effects on chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in vivo. We also found evidence of direct interaction between the two signaling pathways in a cell model of chondrogenesis in vitro.
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123
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Lü K, Xu L, Xia L, Zhang Y, Zhang X, Kaplan DL, Jiang X, Zhang F. An ectopic study of apatite-coated silk fibroin scaffolds seeded with AdBMP-2-modified canine bMSCs. JOURNAL OF BIOMATERIALS SCIENCE-POLYMER EDITION 2011; 23:509-26. [PMID: 21294971 DOI: 10.1163/092050610x552861] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The present study was undertaken to evaluate ectopic new bone formation effects of apatite-coated silk fibroin scaffolds (mSS) seeded with adenovirus-mediated bone morphogenic protein-2 gene (AdBMP-2) transduced canine bone marrow stromal cells (bMSCs) in nude mice. In this study, bMSCs derived from canine were cultured and transduced with AdBMP-2 adenovirus-mediated enhanced green fluorescent protein gene (AdEGFP) in vitro. Osteogenic differentiation of bMSCs was determined by alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity analysis, and the transcript levels for BMP-2, osteopontin (OPN), osteocalcin (OCN) and bone sialoprotein (BSP) genes via real-time quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) analysis. The ectopic bone formation effects of mSS seeded with AdBMP-2-modified bMSCs were evaluated through histological and histomorphological analysis 4, 8 and 12 weeks post-operation in nude mice. ALP activity was statistically increased in the AdBMP-2 group, when compared with control groups. The mRNA expression of BMP-2, OPN, OCN and BSP was also statistically up-regulated 6 and 9 days after AdBMP-2 transduction. Significantly higher bone volume was achieved in AdBMP-2-transduced bMSCs/mSS constructs than that of AdEGFP-transduced bMSCs/mSS or bMSCs/mSS groups at 4, 8 and 12 weeks (P < 0.01). These results demonstrated that mSS seeded with AdBMP-2-transduced canine bMSCs can promote ectopic new bone formation and maturation in nude mice, suggesting the potential of this silk-scaffold-based tissue-engineered bone for further bone regeneration studies in canine models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaige Lü
- Department of Prosthodontics, College of Stomatology, Ninth People's Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Stomatology, Shanghai 200011, P. R. China
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124
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Li Y, Ahrens MJ, Wu A, Liu J, Dudley AT. Calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II activity regulates the proliferative potential of growth plate chondrocytes. Development 2011; 138:359-70. [PMID: 21177348 DOI: 10.1242/dev.052324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
For tissues that develop throughout embryogenesis and into postnatal life, the generation of differentiated cells to promote tissue growth is at odds with the requirement to maintain the stem cell/progenitor cell population to preserve future growth potential. In the growth plate cartilage, this balance is achieved in part by establishing a proliferative phase that amplifies the number of progenitor cells prior to terminal differentiation into hypertrophic chondrocytes. Here, we show that endogenous calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CamkII, also known as Camk2) activity is upregulated prior to hypertrophy and that loss of CamkII function substantially blocks the transition from proliferation to hypertrophy. Wnt signaling and Pthrp-induced phosphatase activity negatively regulate CamkII activity. Release of this repression results in activation of multiple effector pathways, including Runx2- and β-catenin-dependent pathways. We present an integrated model for the regulation of proliferation potential by CamkII activity that has important implications for studies of growth control and adult progenitor/stem cell populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuwei Li
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, 2205 Tech Drive, Hogan 2-100, Evanston, Illinois 60208-3500, USA
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125
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Motaung SCKM, Di Cesare PE, Hari Reddi A. Differential response of cartilage oligomeric matrix protein (COMP) to morphogens of bone morphogenetic protein/transforming growth factor-β family in the surface, middle and deep zones of articular cartilage. J Tissue Eng Regen Med 2011; 5:e87-96. [DOI: 10.1002/term.358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2010] [Accepted: 07/12/2010] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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126
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Kuo WJ, Digman MA, Lander AD. Heparan sulfate acts as a bone morphogenetic protein coreceptor by facilitating ligand-induced receptor hetero-oligomerization. Mol Biol Cell 2010; 21:4028-41. [PMID: 20861306 PMCID: PMC2982130 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e10-04-0348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Cell surface heparan sulfate (HS) not only binds several major classes of growth factors but also sometimes potentiates their activities--an effect usually termed "coreception." A view that coreception is due to the stabilization of growth factor-receptor interactions has emerged primarily from studies of the fibroblast growth factors (FGFs). Recent in vivo studies have strongly suggested that HS also plays an important role in regulating signaling by the bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs). Here, we provide evidence that the mechanism of coreception for BMPs is markedly different from that established for FGFs. First, we demonstrate a direct, stimulatory role for cell surface HS in the immediate signaling activities of BMP2 and BMP4, and we provide evidence that HS-BMP interactions are required for this effect. Next, using several independent assays of ligand binding and receptor assembly, including coimmunoprecipitation, cross-linking, and fluorescence fluctuation microscopy, we show that HS does not affect BMP binding to type I receptor subunits but instead enhances the subsequent recruitment of type II receptor subunits to BMP-type I receptor complexes. This suggests a view of HS as a catalyst of the formation of signaling complexes, rather than as a stabilizer of growth factor binding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wan-Jong Kuo
- Department of Developmental and Cell Biology, Center for Complex Biological Systems, University of California-Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
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127
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Dreier R. Hypertrophic differentiation of chondrocytes in osteoarthritis: the developmental aspect of degenerative joint disorders. Arthritis Res Ther 2010; 12:216. [PMID: 20959023 PMCID: PMC2990991 DOI: 10.1186/ar3117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 235] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Osteoarthritis is characterized by a progressive degradation of articular cartilage leading to loss of joint function. The molecular mechanisms regulating pathogenesis and progression of osteoarthritis are poorly understood. Remarkably, some characteristics of this joint disease resemble chondrocyte differentiation processes during skeletal development by endochondral ossification. In healthy articular cartilage, chondrocytes resist proliferation and terminal differentiation. By contrast, chondrocytes in diseased cartilage progressively proliferate and develop hypertrophy. Moreover, vascularization and focal calcification of joint cartilage are initiated. Signaling molecules that regulate chondrocyte activities in both growth cartilage and permanent articular cartilage during osteoarthritis are thus interesting targets for disease-modifying osteoarthritis therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rita Dreier
- University Hospital of Munster, Institute for Physiological Chemistry and Pathobiochemistry, Waldeyerstra.e 15, 48149 Munster, Germany.
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128
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Beier F, Loeser RF. Biology and pathology of Rho GTPase, PI-3 kinase-Akt, and MAP kinase signaling pathways in chondrocytes. J Cell Biochem 2010; 110:573-80. [PMID: 20512918 DOI: 10.1002/jcb.22604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Chondrocytes provide the framework for the developing skeleton and regulate long-bone growth through the activity of the growth plate. Chondrocytes in the articular cartilage, found at the ends of bones in diarthroidial joints, are responsible for maintenance of the tissue through synthesis and degradation of the extracellular matrix. The processes of growth, differentiation, cell death and matrix remodeling are regulated by a network of cell signaling pathways in response to a variety of extracellular stimuli. These stimuli consist of soluble ligands, including growth factors and cytokines, extracellular matrix proteins, and mechanical factors that act in concert to regulate chondrocyte function through a variety of canonical and non-canonical signaling pathways. Key chondrocyte signaling pathways include, but are not limited to, the p38, JNK and ERK MAP kinases, the PI-3 kinase-Akt pathway, the Jak-STAT pathway, Rho GTPases and Wnt-beta-catenin and Smad pathways. Modulation of the activity of any of these pathways has been associated with various pathological states in cartilage. This review focuses on the Rho GTPases, the PI-3 kinase-Akt pathway, and some selected aspects of MAP kinase signaling. Most studies to date have examined these pathways in isolation but it is becoming clear that there is significant cross-talk among the pathways and that the overall effects on chondrocyte function depend on the balance in activity of multiple signaling proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank Beier
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
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129
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Zhou Z, Xie J, Lee D, Liu Y, Jung J, Zhou L, Xiong S, Mei L, Xiong WC. Neogenin regulation of BMP-induced canonical Smad signaling and endochondral bone formation. Dev Cell 2010; 19:90-102. [PMID: 20643353 PMCID: PMC2924163 DOI: 10.1016/j.devcel.2010.06.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2009] [Revised: 04/29/2010] [Accepted: 06/10/2010] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Neogenin has been identified as a receptor for the neuronal axon guidance cues netrins and RGMs (repulsive guidance molecules). Here we provide evidence for neogenin in regulating endochondral bone development and BMP (bone morphogenetic protein) signaling. Neogenin-deficient mice were impaired in digit/limb development and endochondral ossification. BMP2 induction of Smad1/5/8 phosphorylation and Runx2 expression, but not noncanonical p38 MAPK activation, was reduced in chondrocytes from neogenin mutant mice. BMP receptor association with membrane microdomains, which is necessary for BMP signaling to Smad, but not p38 MAPK, was diminished in neogenin-deficient chondrocytes. Furthermore, RGMs appear to mediate neogenin interaction with BMP receptors in chondrocytes. Taken together, our results indicate that neogenin promotes chondrogenesis in vitro and in vivo, revealing an unexpected mechanism underlying neogenin regulation of BMP signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zheng Zhou
- Institute of Molecular Medicine & Genetics and Department of Neurology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta, GA, 30912
| | - Jianxin Xie
- Institute of Molecular Medicine & Genetics and Department of Neurology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta, GA, 30912
| | - Daehoon Lee
- Institute of Molecular Medicine & Genetics and Department of Neurology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta, GA, 30912
| | - Yu Liu
- Institute of Molecular Medicine & Genetics and Department of Neurology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta, GA, 30912
| | - Jiung Jung
- Institute of Molecular Medicine & Genetics and Department of Neurology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta, GA, 30912
| | - Lijuan Zhou
- Institute of Molecular Medicine & Genetics and Department of Neurology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta, GA, 30912
| | - Shan Xiong
- Institute of Molecular Medicine & Genetics and Department of Neurology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta, GA, 30912
| | - Lin Mei
- Institute of Molecular Medicine & Genetics and Department of Neurology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta, GA, 30912
| | - Wen-Cheng Xiong
- Institute of Molecular Medicine & Genetics and Department of Neurology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta, GA, 30912
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130
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Extracellular sulfatases support cartilage homeostasis by regulating BMP and FGF signaling pathways. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2010; 107:10202-7. [PMID: 20479257 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0913897107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The balance between anabolic and catabolic signaling pathways is critical in maintaining cartilage homeostasis and its disturbance contributes to joint diseases such as osteoarthritis (OA). A unique mechanism that modulates the activity of cell signaling pathways is controlled by extracellular heparan endosulfatases Sulf-1 and Sulf-2 (Sulfs) that are overexpressed in OA cartilage. This study addressed the role of Sulfs in cartilage homeostasis and in regulating bone morphogenetic protein (BMP)/Smad and fibroblast growth factor (FGF)/Erk signaling in articular cartilage. Spontaneous cartilage degeneration and surgically induced OA were significantly more severe in Sulf-1(-/-) and Sulf-2(-/-) mice compared with wild-type mice. MMP-13, ADAMTS-5, and the BMP antagonist noggin were elevated whereas col2a1 and aggrecan were reduced in cartilage and chondrocytes from Sulf(-/-) mice. Articular cartilage and cultured chondrocytes from Sulf(-/-) mice showed reduced Smad1 protein expression and Smad1/5 phosphorylation, whereas Erk1/2 phosphorylation was increased. In human chondrocytes, Sulfs siRNA reduced Smad phosphorylation but enhanced FGF-2-induced Erk1/2 signaling. These findings suggest that Sulfs simultaneously enhance BMP but inhibit FGF signaling in chondrocytes and maintain cartilage homeostasis. Approaches to correct abnormal Sulf expression have the potential to protect against cartilage degradation and promote cartilage repair in OA.
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131
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Abstract
Although many signals are capable of activating MAPK signaling cascades in chondrocytes in vitro, the function of these pathways remains unclear in vivo. Here we report the phenotype of mice with a conditional deletion of TGF-beta-activated kinase 1 (TAK1), a MAP3K family member, in cartilage using the collagen 2alpha promoter. These mice display chondrodysplasia characterized by neonatal-onset runting, delayed formation of secondary ossification centers, and defects in formation of the elbow and tarsal joints. This constellation of defects resembles the phenotype of mice deficient for receptors or ligands involved in signaling by BMP family members. Chondrocytes from these mice show evidence of defective BMP signaling in vivo and in vitro. Surprisingly, deletion of TAK1 seems to affect not only activation of the p38 MAPK signaling cascade, but also activation of the BMP-responsive Smad1/5/8. Biochemical analysis suggests that TAK1 can interact with Smad proteins and promote their activation through phosphorylation, revealing a previously unrecognized crosstalk between the MAPK and Smad arms of BMP signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew B Greenblatt
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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132
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Wuelling M, Vortkamp A. Transcriptional networks controlling chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation during endochondral ossification. Pediatr Nephrol 2010; 25:625-31. [PMID: 19949815 DOI: 10.1007/s00467-009-1368-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2009] [Revised: 10/23/2009] [Accepted: 10/28/2009] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
During endochondral ossification bones are formed as cartilage templates in which chondrocytes proliferate, differentiate into hypertrophic chondrocytes and are gradually replaced by bone. Postnatally, remnants of embryonic chondrocytes remain in a restricted domain between the ossified regions of the bones forming the growth plate. The coordinated proliferation and differentiation of chondrocytes ensures the continuous elongation of the epiphyseal growth plates. The sequential changes between proliferation and differentiation are tightly regulated by secreted growth factors, which activate chondrocyte-specific transcription factors. Transcription factors that play critical roles in regulating cell-type-specific gene expression include Sox9, Gli2/3, and Runx2. The interaction of these transcription factors with general transcriptional regulators like histone-modifying enzymes provides an additional level of regulation to fine-tune the expression of target genes in different chondrocyte populations. This review will outline recent advances in the analysis of the complex transcriptional network that regulates the distinct steps of chondrocyte differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuela Wuelling
- Department of Developmental Biology, Center for Medical Biotechnology, University Duisburg-Essen, 45117 Essen, Germany
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133
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Abstract
Smad proteins are intracellular molecules that mediate the canonical signaling cascade of TGFbeta superfamily growth factors. The TGFbeta superfamily comprises two groups of growth factors, BMPs and TGFbetas. Both groups can be further divided into several sub-groups based on sequence homologies and functional similarities. Ligands of the TGFbeta superfamily bind to cell surface receptors to activate Smad proteins in the cytoplasm; then the activated Smad proteins translocate into the nucleus to activate or repress specific target gene transcription. Both groups of growth factors play important roles in skeletal development and regeneration. However, whether these effects reflect signaling through canonical Smad pathways, or other non-canonical signaling pathways in vivo remains a mystery. Moreover, the mechanisms utilized by Smad proteins to initiate nuclear events and their interactions with cytoplasmic proteins are still under intensive investigation. This review will discuss the most recent progress understanding Smad signaling in the context of skeletal development and regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Buer Song
- Orthopedic Hospital Research Center, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, University of California-Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, United States
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134
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Lin L, Shen Q, Xue T, Yu C. Heterotopic ossification induced by Achilles tenotomy via endochondral bone formation: expression of bone and cartilage related genes. Bone 2010; 46:425-31. [PMID: 19735753 DOI: 10.1016/j.bone.2009.08.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2009] [Revised: 08/26/2009] [Accepted: 08/27/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Animal model for heterotopic ossification (HO) induced by Achilles tenotomy in rats has been used in the literature. However, the molecular mechanism remains unclear. Here, we studied bone and cartilage related genes and their possible roles in this model. Thirty rats underwent bilateral midpoint Achilles tenotomy through a posterior approach under aseptic condition. At 3, 5 and 10 weeks post-operation, X-ray and histological examinations were carried out to investigate the formation of HO. At different phases of HO formation, mRNA levels of transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta1, TGF-beta2, TGF-beta 3, bone morphogenetic proteins (BMP)-2, BMP-4, BMP-7, hypoxia inducible factor (HIF)-1 alpha, Sox9, Runx2, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), aggrecan and collagen type I, II and X were evaluated by real-time RT-PCR. Protein levels of TGF-beta1, TGF-beta2, TGF-beta 3, BMP-2, BMP-4, BMP-7, HIF-1 alpha, Sox9 and Runx2 were also examined by immunohistochemical staining. During the chondrogenic phase, the expressions of HIF-1 alpha and Sox9 were significantly up-regulated. Runx2 expression was significantly up-regulated during osteogenic phase, while HIF-1 alpha and Sox9 expression was significant decreased. TGF-beta1 mRNA levels were rather constant, and the mRNA levels of TGF-beta2, TGF-beta 3 and BMPs were changed throughout HO formation. The presences of the proteins of HIF-1 alpha, Sox9, Runx2, TGF-betas and BMPs within the HO tissues were confirmed by immunohistochemical staining. Our study indicates that HO induced by Achilles tenotomy is by endochondral bone formation, and HIF-1 alpha activation plays an important role during chondrogenesis in this model. Furthermore, the model provides a new experimental system to study endochondral ossification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Lin
- Institute of Sports Medicine, Peking University Third Hospital, No. 49, North Garden Road, Haidian District, Beijing 100191, People's Republic of China
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135
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Peacock JD, Levay AK, Gillaspie DB, Tao G, Lincoln J. Reduced sox9 function promotes heart valve calcification phenotypes in vivo. Circ Res 2010; 106:712-9. [PMID: 20056916 DOI: 10.1161/circresaha.109.213702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Calcification of heart valve structures is the most common form of valvular disease and is characterized by the appearance of bone-like phenotypes within affected structures. Despite the clinical significance, the underlying etiology of disease onset and progression is largely unknown and valve replacement remains the most effective treatment. The SRY-related transcription factor Sox9 is expressed in developing and mature heart valves, and its function is required for expression of cartilage-associated proteins, similar to its role in chondrogenesis. In addition to cartilage-associated defects, mice with reduced sox9 function develop skeletal bone prematurely; however, the ability of sox9 deficiency to promote ectopic osteogenic phenotypes in heart valves has not been examined. OBJECTIVE This study aims to determine the role of Sox9 in maintaining connective tissue homeostasis in mature heart valves using in vivo and in vitro approaches. METHODS AND RESULTS Using histological and molecular analyses, we report that, from 3 months of age, Sox9(fl/+);Col2a1-cre mice develop calcific lesions in heart valve leaflets associated with increased expression of bone-related genes and activation of inflammation and matrix remodeling processes. Consistently, ectopic calcification is also observed following direct knockdown of Sox9 in heart valves in vitro. Furthermore, we show that retinoic acid treatment in mature heart valves is sufficient to promote calcific processes in vitro, which can be attenuated by Sox9 overexpression. CONCLUSIONS This study provides insight into the molecular mechanisms of heart valve calcification and identifies reduced Sox9 function as a potential genetic basis for calcific valvular disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacqueline D Peacock
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology, Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, 1600 NW 10th Ave., Miami, FL 33136, USA
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136
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW To summarize the recent advances in our understanding of the majors genes involved in chondrogenesis and their molecular mechanisms. RECENT FINDINGS Disorders of the growth plate and the resulting skeletal dysplasias are a consequence of defects in genes involved in various stages of the chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation process. Recent identification of disease genes has provided insights into the pathophysiology of many skeletal dysplasias. SUMMARY This knowledge enhances our understanding of the physiology and pathophysiology of the growth plate. Many skeletal dysplasias can now be characterized at the molecular level, allowing clinicians to provide accurate molecular diagnoses and counseling. Further research in this area will likely provide insights into possible therapeutic options for disorders of the growth plate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chanika Phornphutkul
- Department of Pediatrics, Rhode Island Hospital, Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02903, USA.
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137
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Surmann-Schmitt C, Widmann N, Mallein-Gerin F, von der Mark K, Stock M. Stable subclones of the chondrogenic murine cell line MC615 mimic distinct stages of chondrocyte differentiation. J Cell Biochem 2009; 108:589-99. [PMID: 19670270 DOI: 10.1002/jcb.22290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Fourteen stable subclones derived from the murine chondrogenic cell line MC615 were established and characterised regarding their differentiation stages and responsivity to BMP2. Based on their gene expression profiles which revealed remarkable variances in Col2a1 and Col10a1 expression, subclones could be grouped into at least three distinct categories. Three representative subclones (4C3, 4C6 and 4H4) were further characterised with respect to gene expression pattern and differentiation capacity. These subclones resembled (i) weakly differentiated chondrogenic precursors, strongly responding to BMP2 stimulation (4C3), (ii) collagen II expressing chondrocytes which could be induced to undergo maturation (4C6) and (iii) mature chondrocytes expressing Col10a1 and other markers of hypertrophy (4H4). Interestingly, BMP2 administration caused Smad protein phosphorylation and stimulated Col10a1 expression in all clones, but induced Col2a1 expression only in precursor-like cells. Most remarkably, these clones maintained a stable gene expression profile at least until the 30th passage of subconfluent culture, but revealed reproducible changes in gene expression and differentiation pattern in long term high density cultures. Thus, the newly established MC615 subclones may serve as a potent new tool for investigations on the regulation of chondrocyte differentiation and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cordula Surmann-Schmitt
- Department Experimental Medicine I, Nikolaus-Fiebiger Centre of Molecular Medicine, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Erlangen, Germany.
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138
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Kaplan FS, Pignolo RJ, Shore EM. The FOP metamorphogene encodes a novel type I receptor that dysregulates BMP signaling. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2009; 20:399-407. [PMID: 19896889 DOI: 10.1016/j.cytogfr.2009.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
The ability of mature organisms to stabilize phenotypes has enormous selective advantage across all phyla, but the mechanisms have been largely unexplored. Individuals with fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva (FOP), a rare genetic disorder of progressive heterotopic ossification, undergo a pathological metamorphosis in which one normal tissue is transformed into another through a highly regulated process of tissue destruction and phenotype reassignment. This disabling metamorphosis is mediated by the FOP metamorphogene, which encodes a mutant bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) type I receptor that exhibits mild constitutive activity during development and severe episodic dysregulation postnatally. The discovery of the FOP metamorphogene reveals a highly conserved target for drug development and identifies a fundamental defect in the BMP signaling pathway that when triggered by injury and inflammation transforms one tissue into another.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frederick S Kaplan
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, The Center for Research in FOP & Related Disorders, The University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
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139
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Yeung CW, Cheah K, Chan D, Chan BP. Effects of Reconstituted Collagen Matrix on Fates of Mouse Embryonic Stem Cells Before and After Induction for Chondrogenic Differentiation. Tissue Eng Part A 2009; 15:3071-85. [DOI: 10.1089/ten.tea.2008.0661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Chiu W. Yeung
- Medical Engineering Program, Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
| | - Kathryn Cheah
- Department of Biochemistry, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
| | - Danny Chan
- Department of Biochemistry, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
| | - Barbara P. Chan
- Medical Engineering Program, Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
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140
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Onyekwelu I, Goldring MB, Hidaka C. Chondrogenesis, joint formation, and articular cartilage regeneration. J Cell Biochem 2009; 107:383-92. [PMID: 19343794 DOI: 10.1002/jcb.22149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
The repair of joint surface defects remains a clinical challenge, as articular cartilage has a limited healing response. Despite this, articular cartilage does have the capacity to grow and remodel extensively during pre- and post-natal development. As such, the elucidation of developmental mechanisms, particularly those in post-natal animals, may shed valuable light on processes that could be harnessed to develop novel approaches for articular cartilage tissue engineering and/or regeneration to treat injuries or degeneration in adult joints. Much has been learned through mouse genetics regarding the embryonic development of joints. This knowledge, as well as the less extensive available information regarding post-natal joint development is reviewed here and discussed in relation to their possible relevance to future directions in cartilage tissue repair and regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ikemefuna Onyekwelu
- Tissue Engineering Regeneration and Repair Program, Hospital for Special Surgery, New York, New York, USA
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141
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Histone deacetylase 4 promotes TGF-beta1-induced synovium-derived stem cell chondrogenesis but inhibits chondrogenically differentiated stem cell hypertrophy. Differentiation 2009; 78:260-8. [PMID: 19716643 DOI: 10.1016/j.diff.2009.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2009] [Revised: 07/27/2009] [Accepted: 08/03/2009] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) superfamily members play diverse roles in cartilage development and maintenance. TGF-beta up-regulates chondrogenic gene expression by enhancing transcription factor SRY (sex determining region Y)-box 9 (Sox9) and inhibits osteoblast differentiation by repressing runt-related transcription factor 2 (Runx2). Recently, histone deacetylases (HDACs) were reported to act as negative regulators of chondrocyte hypertrophy. It was speculated that HDAC4 may promote TGF-beta1-induced MSC chondrogenesis. In this study, the adenovirus-mediated HDAC4 gene (Ad.HDAC4) was utilized to infect synovium-derived stem cells (SDSCs). Adenovirus-mediated LacZ (Ad.LacZ) served as a control. The infected cells were centrifuged to form SDSC pellets followed by incubation in a serum-free chondrogenic medium for 15 days with or without 10ng/mL TGF-beta1. Transfection efficiency was determined in SDSCs using Ad.LacZ. Cytotoxicity was measured using lactate dehydrogenase assay. Histology, immunostaining, biochemical analysis, and real-time polymerase chain reaction were performed to assess chondrogenesis at protein and mRNA levels in infected SDSCs. Our data demonstrated that supplementation with TGF-beta1 could initiate and promote SDSC chondrogenesis; however, TGF-beta1 alone was insufficient to fully differentiate SDSCs into chondrocytes. Ad.HDAC4 could be efficiently transfected into SDSCs. Without TGF-beta1 treatment, HDAC4 had no effect on SDSC chondrogenesis; however, in the presence of TGF-beta1, HDAC4 could speed up and maintain a high level of chondrogenesis while down-regulating the hypertrophic marker - type X collagen expression. This study is the first report showing that HDAC4 overexpression promotes TGF-beta1-induced SDSC chondrogenesis but inhibits chondrogenically differentiated stem cell hypertrophy. The mechanism underlying this process needs further investigation.
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142
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Chen M, Feng W, Cao H, Zou L, Chen C, Baatrup A, Nielsen AB, Li H, Kassem M, Zou X, Bünger C. A traditional Chinese medicine formula extracts stimulate proliferation and inhibit mineralization of human mesenchymal stem cells in vitro. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2009; 125:75-82. [PMID: 19549563 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2009.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2008] [Revised: 05/04/2009] [Accepted: 06/14/2009] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
AIM OF THE STUDY To investigate the effects of a traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) formula extract, named as ZD-I, on the proliferation and osteogenic differentiation of human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) in vitro. MATERIALS AND METHODS When hMSCs cultivated in the basal medium with ZD-I, cell viability was assessed by MTT assay and cellular proliferation was assessed by SYBR green I assay. The effects of ZD-I on osteogenic differentiation of hMSCs were assessed by alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity, mineralization assay and real-time RT-PCR. RESULTS ZD-I (0.78-100 microg/ml) was non-cytotoxic. The 50% inhibitory concentration (IC50) of hMSCs was 200 microg/ml. ZD-I (0.78-50 microg/ml) stimulated the proliferation of hMSCs. ZD-I did not change ALP activity of hMSCs cultivated in osteogenic medium in the early stage (4 and 7 days), but ZD-I inhibited the mineralization of hMSCs through down-regulation of several osteogenic markers (e.g. osteocalcin, bone morphogenetic protein 2 and osteopontin) in the late stage. CONCLUSIONS ZD-I stimulate cellular proliferation and decrease the bone mineral deposition of hMSCs. These results suggest ZD-I may play an important therapeutic role in osteoarthritic patients by improving proliferative capacity of hMSCs and inhibiting the mineralization of hMSCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muwan Chen
- Orthopaedic Research Lab, Aarhus University Hospital, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
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143
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Zhao J, Hu J, Wang S, Sun X, Xia L, Zhang X, Zhang Z, Jiang X. Combination of beta-TCP and BMP-2 gene-modified bMSCs to heal critical size mandibular defects in rats. Oral Dis 2009; 16:46-54. [PMID: 19619194 DOI: 10.1111/j.1601-0825.2009.01602.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To investigate the effects of mandibular defects repaired by a tissue engineered bone complex with beta-tricalcium phosphate (beta-TCP) and bone morphogenic protein-2 (BMP-2) gene-modified bone marrow stromal cells (bMSCs). MATERIALS AND METHODS bMSCs derived from Fisher 344 rats were cultured and transduced with adenovirus AdBMP-2, AdEGFP gene in vitro. Osteogenic differentiation of bMSCs was determined by alkaline phosphatase staining, von Kossa assay and reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. Gene transduced or untransduced bMSCs were seeded on beta-TCP scaffolds to repair mandibular full thickness defects with a diameter of 5 mm. Eight weeks post-operation, X-ray examination, micro-computerized tomography and histological and histomorphological analysis were used to evaluate the bone healing effects. RESULTS Alkaline phosphatase staining and mineralized nodules formation were more pronounced in AdBMP-2 group 14 days after gene transduction when compared with that of AdEGFP or untransduced group. The mRNA expression of osteopontin and osteocalcin also significantly increased 9 days after AdBMP-2 gene transduction. Mandibular defects were successfully repaired with AdBMP-2-transduced bMSCs/beta-TCP constructs. The percentage of new bone formation in AdBMP-2 group was significantly higher than that of other control groups. CONCLUSIONS Bone morphogenic protein-2 regional gene therapy together with beta-TCP scaffold could be used to promote mandibular repairing and bone regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Zhao
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, College of Stomatology, Ninth People's Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 200011 Shanghai, China
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144
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TAK1 is an essential regulator of BMP signalling in cartilage. EMBO J 2009; 28:2028-41. [PMID: 19536134 PMCID: PMC2699391 DOI: 10.1038/emboj.2009.162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2009] [Accepted: 05/18/2009] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
TGFβ activated kinase 1 (TAK1), a member of the MAPKKK family, controls diverse functions ranging from innate and adaptive immune system activation to vascular development and apoptosis. To analyse the in vivo function of TAK1 in cartilage, we generated mice with a conditional deletion of Tak1 driven by the collagen 2 promoter. Tak1col2 mice displayed severe chondrodysplasia with runting, impaired formation of secondary centres of ossification, and joint abnormalities including elbow dislocation and tarsal fusion. This phenotype resembled that of bone morphogenetic protein receptor (BMPR)1 and Gdf5-deficient mice. BMPR signalling was markedly impaired in TAK1-deficient chondrocytes as evidenced by reduced expression of known BMP target genes as well as reduced phosphorylation of Smad1/5/8 and p38/Jnk/Erk MAP kinases. TAK1 mediates Smad1 phosphorylation at C-terminal serine residues. These findings provide the first in vivo evidence in a mammalian system that TAK1 is required for BMP signalling and functions as an upstream activating kinase for Smad1/5/8 in addition to its known role in regulating MAP kinase pathways. Our experiments reveal an essential role for TAK1 in the morphogenesis, growth, and maintenance of cartilage.
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145
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Hara K, Shiga A, Fukutake T, Nozaki H, Miyashita A, Yokoseki A, Kawata H, Koyama A, Arima K, Takahashi T, Ikeda M, Shiota H, Tamura M, Shimoe Y, Hirayama M, Arisato T, Yanagawa S, Tanaka A, Nakano I, Ikeda SI, Yoshida Y, Yamamoto T, Ikeuchi T, Kuwano R, Nishizawa M, Tsuji S, Onodera O. Association of HTRA1 mutations and familial ischemic cerebral small-vessel disease. N Engl J Med 2009; 360:1729-39. [PMID: 19387015 DOI: 10.1056/nejmoa0801560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 313] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The genetic cause of cerebral autosomal recessive arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy (CARASIL), which is characterized by ischemic, nonhypertensive, cerebral small-vessel disease with associated alopecia and spondylosis, is unclear. METHODS In five families with CARASIL, we carried out linkage analysis, fine mapping of the region implicated in the disease, and sequence analysis of a candidate gene. We also conducted functional analysis of wild-type and mutant gene products and measured the signaling by members of the transforming growth factor beta (TGF-beta) family and gene and protein expression in the small arteries in the cerebrum of two patients with CARASIL. RESULTS We found linkage of the disease to the 2.4-Mb region on chromosome 10q, which contains the HtrA serine protease 1 (HTRA1) gene. HTRA1 is a serine protease that represses signaling by TGF-beta family members. Sequence analysis revealed two nonsense mutations and two missense mutations in HTRA1. The missense mutations and one of the nonsense mutations resulted in protein products that had comparatively low levels of protease activity and did not repress signaling by the TGF-beta family. The other nonsense mutation resulted in the loss of HTRA1 protein by nonsense-mediated decay of messenger RNA. Immunohistochemical analysis of the cerebral small arteries in affected persons showed increased expression of the extra domain-A region of fibronectin and versican in the thickened tunica intima and of TGF-beta1 in the tunica media. CONCLUSIONS CARASIL is associated with mutations in the HTRA1 gene. Our findings indicate a link between repressed inhibition of signaling by the TGF-beta family and ischemic cerebral small-vessel disease, alopecia, and spondylosis.
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146
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[Roles of TGF-b superfamily in the genesis, development and maintenance of cartilage]. YI CHUAN = HEREDITAS 2009; 30:953-9. [PMID: 18779142 DOI: 10.3724/sp.j.1005.2008.00953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The transforming growth factor beta (TGF-beta) superfamily is composed of TGF-beta subfamily and bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) subfamily. The ligands, ligand antagonists, receptors and intracellular transductors that engage in the TGF-beta superfamily signaling pathway play their unique roles during endochondral ossification via regulating the lineage differentiation, proliferation, maturation, apoptosis and mineralization of chondrocytes. BMP signaling dominates chondro-genesis through initiating the chondrocytic commitment of mesenchymal cells and maintaining the chondrocytic phenotype. During the development of growth plate, BMP signaling promotes the maturation of chondrocytes to facilitate ossification, whereas TGF-beta signaling inhibits the hypertrophic differentiation to preserve adequate chondrocytes within the growth plate. Both TGF-beta signaling and BMP signaling are indispensable for the maintenance and repair of articular cartilage. Therefore, it indicates that TGF-beta superfamily may function essentially all throughout the development of skeletons.
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147
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Mirmalek-Sani SH, Stokes PJ, Tare RS, Ralph EJ, Inglis S, Hanley NA, Houghton FD, Oreffo ROC. Derivation of a novel undifferentiated human foetal phenotype in serum-free cultures with BMP-2. J Cell Mol Med 2009; 13:3541-55. [PMID: 19438813 PMCID: PMC3430854 DOI: 10.1111/j.1582-4934.2009.00742.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Skeletal stem and progenitor populations provide a platform for cell-based tissue regeneration strategies. Optimized conditions for ex vivo expansion will be critical and use of serum-free culture may allow enhanced modelling of differentiation potential. Maintenance of human foetal femur-derived cells in a chemically defined medium (CDM) with activin A and fibroblast growth factor-2 generated a unique undifferentiated cell population in comparison to basal cultures, with significantly reduced amino acid depletion, appearance and turnover, reduced alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity and loss of type I and II collagen expression demonstrated by fluorescence immunocytochemistry. Microarray analysis demonstrated up-regulation of CLU, OSR2, POSTN and RABGAP1 and down-regulation of differentiation-associated genes CRYAB, CSRP1, EPAS1, GREM1, MT1X and SRGN as validated by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. Application of osteogenic conditions to CDM cultures demonstrated partial rescue of ALP activity. In contrast, the addition of bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2) resulted in reduced ALP levels, increased amino acid metabolism and, strikingly, a marked shift to a cobblestone-like cellular morphology, with expression of SOX-2 and SOX-9 but not STRO-1 as shown by immunocytochemistry, and significantly altered expression of metabolic genes (GFPT2, SC4MOL and SQLE), genes involved in morphogenesis (SOX15 and WIF1) and differentiation potential (C1orf19, CHSY-2,DUSP6, HMGCS1 and PPL). These studies demonstrate the use of an intermediary foetal cellular model for differentiation studies in chemically defined conditions and indicate the in vitro reconstruction of the mesenchymal condensation phenotype in the presence of BMP-2, with implications therein for rescue studies, screening assays and skeletal regeneration research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sayed-Hadi Mirmalek-Sani
- Centre for Human Development, Stem Cells and Regeneration, Bone and Joint Research Group, Developmental Origins of Health and Disease Division, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK
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148
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Retting KN, Song B, Yoon BS, Lyons KM. BMP canonical Smad signaling through Smad1 and Smad5 is required for endochondral bone formation. Development 2009; 136:1093-104. [PMID: 19224984 DOI: 10.1242/dev.029926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 266] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signaling is required for endochondral bone formation. However, whether or not the effects of BMPs are mediated via canonical Smad pathways or through noncanonical pathways is unknown. In this study we have determined the role of receptor Smads 1, 5 and 8 in chondrogenesis. Deletion of individual Smads results in viable and fertile mice. Combined loss of Smads 1, 5 and 8, however, results in severe chondrodysplasia. Smad1/5(CKO) (cartilage-specific knockout) mutant mice are nearly identical to Smad1/5(CKO);Smad8(-/-) mutants, indicating that Smads 1 and 5 have overlapping functions and are more important than Smad8 in cartilage. The Smad1/5(CKO) phenotype is more severe than that of Smad4(CKO) mice, challenging the dogma, at least in chondrocytes, that Smad4 is required to mediate Smad signaling through BMP pathways. The chondrodysplasia in Smad1/5(CKO) mice is accompanied by imbalances in cross-talk between the BMP, FGF and Ihh/PTHrP pathways. We show that Ihh is a direct target of BMP pathways in chondrocytes, and that FGF exerts antagonistic effects on Ihh expression. Finally, we tested whether FGF exerts its antagonistic effects directly through Smad linker phosphorylation. The results support the alternative conclusion that the effects of FGFs on BMP signaling are indirect in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelsey N Retting
- UCLA Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, David Geffen School of Medicine, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
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149
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Maeda A, Nishida T, Aoyama E, Kubota S, Lyons KM, Kuboki T, Takigawa M. CCN family 2/connective tissue growth factor modulates BMP signalling as a signal conductor, which action regulates the proliferation and differentiation of chondrocytes. J Biochem 2008; 145:207-16. [PMID: 19038999 DOI: 10.1093/jb/mvn159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Both CCN family 2/connective tissue growth factor (CCN2/CTGF) and bone morphogenetic protein (BMP)-2 play an important role in cartilage metabolism. We evaluated whether or not CCN2 would interact with BMP-2, and examined the combination effect of CCN2 with BMP-2 (CCN2-BMP-2) on the proliferation and differentiation of chondrocytes. Immunoprecipitation-western blotting analysis, solid-phase binding assay and surface plasmon resonance (SPR) spectroscopy showed that CCN2 directly interacted with BMP-2 with a dissociation constant of 0.77 nM as evaluated by SPR. An in vivo study revealed that CCN2 was co-localized with BMP-2 at the pre-hypertrophic region in the E18.5 mouse growth plate. Interestingly, CCN2-BMP-2 did not affect the BMP-2/CCN2-induced phosphorylation of p38 MAPK but caused less phosphorylation of ERK1/2 in cultured chondrocytes. Consistent with these results, cell proliferation assay showed that CCN2-BMP-2 stimulated cell growth to a lesser degree than by either CCN2 or BMP-2 alone, whereas the expression of chondrocyte marker genes and proteoglycan synthesis, representing the mature chondrocytic phenotype, was increased collaboratively by CCN2-BMP-2 treatment in cultured chondrocytes. These findings suggest that CCN2 may regulate the proliferating and differentiation of chondrocytes by forming a complex with BMP-2 as a novel modulator of BMP signalling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Azusa Maeda
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Dentistry, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama, Japan
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Fukada T, Civic N, Furuichi T, Shimoda S, Mishima K, Higashiyama H, Idaira Y, Asada Y, Kitamura H, Yamasaki S, Hojyo S, Nakayama M, Ohara O, Koseki H, dos Santos HG, Bonafe L, Ha-Vinh R, Zankl A, Unger S, Kraenzlin ME, Beckmann JS, Saito I, Rivolta C, Ikegawa S, Superti-Furga A, Hirano T. The zinc transporter SLC39A13/ZIP13 is required for connective tissue development; its involvement in BMP/TGF-beta signaling pathways. PLoS One 2008; 3:e3642. [PMID: 18985159 PMCID: PMC2575416 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0003642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 199] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2008] [Accepted: 09/30/2008] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Zinc (Zn) is an essential trace element and it is abundant in connective tissues, however biological roles of Zn and its transporters in those tissues and cells remain unknown. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS Here we report that mice deficient in Zn transporter Slc39a13/Zip13 show changes in bone, teeth and connective tissue reminiscent of the clinical spectrum of human Ehlers-Danlos syndrome (EDS). The Slc39a13 knockout (Slc39a13-KO) mice show defects in the maturation of osteoblasts, chondrocytes, odontoblasts, and fibroblasts. In the corresponding tissues and cells, impairment in bone morphogenic protein (BMP) and TGF-beta signaling were observed. Homozygosity for a SLC39A13 loss of function mutation was detected in sibs affected by a unique variant of EDS that recapitulates the phenotype observed in Slc39a13-KO mice. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE Hence, our results reveal a crucial role of SLC39A13/ZIP13 in connective tissue development at least in part due to its involvement in the BMP/TGF-beta signaling pathways. The Slc39a13-KO mouse represents a novel animal model linking zinc metabolism, BMP/TGF-beta signaling and connective tissue dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toshiyuki Fukada
- Laboratory for Cytokine Signaling, RIKEN Research Center for Allergy and Immunology, Tsurumi, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan
- Department of Allergy and Immunology, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Natacha Civic
- Department of Medical Genetics, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Tatsuya Furuichi
- Laboratory of Bone and Joint Diseases, Center for Genomic Medicine, RIKEN, Minato-ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Shinji Shimoda
- Department of Anatomy-1, Tsurumi University School of Dental Medicine, Tsurumi-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Kenji Mishima
- Department of Pathology, Tsurumi University School of Dental Medicine, Tsurumi-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Higashiyama
- Department of Pathology, Tsurumi University School of Dental Medicine, Tsurumi-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Yayoi Idaira
- Department of Pediatric Dentistry, Tsurumi University School of Dental Medicine, Tsurumi-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Yoshinobu Asada
- Department of Pediatric Dentistry, Tsurumi University School of Dental Medicine, Tsurumi-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Kitamura
- Laboratory for Immunogenomics, RIKEN Research Center for Allergy and Immunology, Tsurumi, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Satoru Yamasaki
- Laboratory for Cytokine Signaling, RIKEN Research Center for Allergy and Immunology, Tsurumi, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Shintaro Hojyo
- Laboratory for Cytokine Signaling, RIKEN Research Center for Allergy and Immunology, Tsurumi, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan
- Department of Allergy and Immunology, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Manabu Nakayama
- Kazusa DNA Research Institute, Laboratory of Genome Technology, Kisarazu, Chiba, Japan
| | - Osamu Ohara
- Laboratory for Immunogenomics, RIKEN Research Center for Allergy and Immunology, Tsurumi, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan
- Kazusa DNA Research Institute, Laboratory of Genome Technology, Kisarazu, Chiba, Japan
| | - Haruhiko Koseki
- Laboratory for Developmental Genetics, RIKEN Research Center for Allergy and Immunology, Tsurumi, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan
| | | | - Luisa Bonafe
- Division of Molecular Pediatrics, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Russia Ha-Vinh
- Division of Molecular Pediatrics, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Andreas Zankl
- Division of Molecular Pediatrics, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Sheila Unger
- Division of Molecular Pediatrics, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, Lausanne, Switzerland
- Department of Paediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Marius E. Kraenzlin
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Clinical Nutrition, University Hospital, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Jacques S. Beckmann
- Department of Medical Genetics, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
- Service of Medical Genetics, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Ichiro Saito
- Department of Pathology, Tsurumi University School of Dental Medicine, Tsurumi-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Carlo Rivolta
- Department of Medical Genetics, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Shiro Ikegawa
- Laboratory of Bone and Joint Diseases, Center for Genomic Medicine, RIKEN, Minato-ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Andrea Superti-Furga
- Division of Molecular Pediatrics, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, Lausanne, Switzerland
- Department of Paediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Toshio Hirano
- Laboratory for Cytokine Signaling, RIKEN Research Center for Allergy and Immunology, Tsurumi, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan
- Laboratory of Developmental Immunology and the CREST Program of the Japan Science and Technology Agency, Graduate School of Frontier Biosciences, Graduate School of Medicine, and WPI Immunology Frontier Research Center, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka, Japan
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