In vivo volumetric photoacoustic molecular angiography and therapeutic monitoring with targeted plasmonic nanostars

Multifunctional theranostic nanoplatform for cancer combined therapy based on gold nanorods

Nanomaterials that integrate diagnostic and therapeutic functions within a single nanoplatform promise great advances in revolutionizing cancer therapy. A smart multifunctional theranostic drug-delivery system (DDS) based on gold nanorods (abbreviated as GNR/TSDOX) is designed for cancer-targeted imaging and imaging-guided therapy. In this intelligent theranostic DDS, the active targeting ligand biotin is introduced to track cancer sites in vivo. With the aid of photothermal/photoacoustic imaging, GNR/TSDOX can ablate cancer specifically and effectively. When stimulated with a single near-infrared (NIR) light source, this NIR light energy is effectively absorbed and converted into heat by GNR/TSDOX for localized photothermal therapy and the increase in temperature also further triggers the cascaded release of the anticancer drug for combined thermo-chemotherapy. More importantly, the in vivo cure effect can be well guided by regulating the irradiation time and intensity of the NIR light.

Plasmonic Vesicles of Amphiphilic Nanocrystals: Optically Active Multifunctional Platform for Cancer Diagnosis and Therapy

Vesicular structures with compartmentalized, water-filled cavities, such as liposomes of natural and synthetic amphiphiles, have tremendous potential applications in nanomedicine. When block copolymers self-assemble, the result is polymersomes with tailored structural properties and built-in releasing mechanisms, controlled by stimuli-responsive polymer building blocks. More recently, chemists are becoming interested in multifunctional hybrid vesicles containing inorganic nanocrystals with unique optical, electronic, and magnetic properties. In this Account, we review our recent progress in assembling amphiphilic plasmonic nanostructures to create a new class of multifunctional hybrid vesicles and applying them towards cancer diagnosis and therapy. Localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) gives plasmonic nanomaterials a unique set of optical properties that are potentially useful for both biosensing and nanomedicine. For instance, the strong light scattering at their LSPR wavelength opens up the applications of plasmonic nanostructures in single particle plasmonic imaging. Their superior photothermal conversion properties, on the other hand, make them excellent transducers for photothermal ablation and contrast agents for photoacoustic imaging. Of particular note for ultrasensitive detection is that the confined electromagnetic field resulting from excitation of LSPR can give rise to highly efficient surface enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) for molecules in close proximity. We have explored several ways to combine well-defined plasmonic nanocrystals with amphiphilic polymer brushes of diverse chemical functionalities. In multiple systems, we have shown that the polymer grafts impart amphiphilicity-driven self-assembly to the hybrid nanoparticles. This has allowed us to synthesize well-defined vesicles in which we have embedded plasmonic nanocrystals in the shell of collapsed hydrophobic polymers. The hydrophilic brushes extend into external and interior aqueous environment to stabilize the vesicular structure. More importantly, we have demonstrated that strong interparticle coupling greatly enhances the optical properties (scattering, photothermal conversion, and SERS) in plasmonic vesicles. In combination with the loading capacity of the vesicles, this technology can provide unique opportunities for integrated diagnosis and therapy, multimodality combination therapy, and imaging-guided therapy. One key property differentiating the plasmonic vesicles from other vesicular structures containing nanocrystals is that we can tailor the interparticle coupling and disintegration of the plasmonic vesicles by altering structural parameters and conformational changes of the covalently bound polymer brushes. This gives us tremendous flexibility to engineer plasmonic vesicles for ultrasensitive detection and targeted therapy. Through bringing together advances in nanochemistry, polymer chemistry, self-assembly, and nanophotonics, we expect to further expand our capability of tailoring optical and structural characteristics of plasmonic vesicles to address challenges in medical settings.

Multifunctional magnetic-hollow gold nanospheres for bimodal cancer cell imaging and photothermal therapy

Multifunctional nanocomposites combining imaging and therapeutic functions have great potential for cancer diagnosis and therapy. In this work, we developed a novel theranostic agent based on hollow gold nanospheres (HGNs) and superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIO). Taking advantage of the excellent magnetic properties of SPIO and strong near-infrared (NIR) absorption property of HGNs, such nanocomposites were applied to targeted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and photoacoustic imaging (PAI) of cancer cells. In vitro results demonstrated they displayed significant contrast enhancement for T2-weighted MRI and strong PAI signal enhancement. Simultaneously, the nanocomposites exhibited a high photothermal effect under the irradiation of the near-infrared laser and can be used as efficient photothermal therapy (PTT) agents for selective killing of cancer cells. All these results indicated that such nanocomposites combined with MRI-PAI and PTT functionality can have great potential for effective cancer diagnosis and therapy.

Aqueous synthesis of PEGylated copper sulfide nanoparticles for photoacoustic imaging of tumors

By integrating high imaging sensitivity and high resolution in a single modality, photoacoustic (PA) imaging emerges as a promising diagnostic tool for clinical applications. Benefiting from the absorption in the near-infrared region (NIR), copper sulfide nanoparticles (NPs) as a contrast agent are potentially useful for increasing the sensitivity of PA imaging. However, the aqueous synthesis of size-tunable, biocompatible and colloidally stable copper sulfide NPs remains challenging due to the intrinsic dipole-dipole interactions among particles. In this work, aqueous synthesis of PEGylated copper sulfide NPs with controllable size between 3 and 7 nm was developed. The particle size-dependent contrast enhancement effect of the copper sulfide NPs for PA imaging was carefully studied both in vitro and in vivo. Although the contrast enhancement effect of the copper sulfide NPs is proportional to particle size, the in vivo studies revealed that copper sulfide NPs smaller than 5 nm presented higher tumor imaging performance, especially at the tumor boundary site, which was further discussed in combination with the pharmacokinetic behaviors of differently sized particles.

Fluorescence Quenching Nanoprobes Dedicated to In Vivo Photoacoustic Imaging and High-Efficient Tumor Therapy in Deep-Seated Tissue

Photoacoustic imaging (PAI) and photoacoustic (PA) therapy have promising applications for treating tumors. It is known that the utilization of high-absorption-coefficient probes can selectively enhance the PAI target contrast and PA tumor therapy efficiency in deep-seated tissue. Here, the design of a probe with the highest availability of optical-thermo conversion by using graphene oxide (GO) and dyes via π-π stacking interactions is reported. The GO serves as a base material for loading dyes and quenching dye fluorescence via fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET), with the one purpose of maximum of PA efficiency. Experiments verify that the designed fluorescence quenching nanoprobes can produce stronger PA signals than the sum of the separate signals generated in the dye and the GO. Potential applications of the fluorescence quenching nanoprobes are demonstrated, dedicating to enhance PA contrast of targets in deep-seated tissues and tumors in living mice. PA therapy efficiency both in vitro and in vivo by using the fluorescence quenching nanoprobes is found to be higher than with the commonly used PA therapy agents. Taken together, quenching dye fluorescence via FRET will provide a valid means for developing high-efficiency PA probes. Fluorescence quenching nanoprobes are likely to become a promising candidate for deep-seated tumor imaging and therapy.

CD44v6 Monoclonal Antibody-Conjugated Gold Nanostars for Targeted Photoacoustic Imaging and Plasmonic Photothermal Therapy of Gastric Cancer Stem-like Cells

Developing safe and effective nanoprobes for targeted imaging and selective therapy of gastric cancer stem cells (GCSCs) has become one of the most promising anticancer strategies. Herein, gold nanostars-based PEGylated multifunctional nanoprobes were prepared with conjugated CD44v6 monoclonal antibodies (CD44v6-GNS) as the targeting ligands. It was observed that the prepared nanoprobes had high affinity towards GCSC spheroid colonies and destroyed them completely with a low power density upon near-infrared (NIR) laser treatment (790 nm, 1.5 W/cm(2), 5 min) in vitro experiment. Orthotopic and subcutaneous xenografted nude mice models of human gastric cancer were established. Subsequently, biodistribution and photothermal therapeutic effects after being intravenously injected with the prepared nanoprobes were assessed. Photoacoustic imaging revealed that CD44v6-GNS nanoprobes could target the gastric cancer vascular system actively at 4 h post-injection, while the probes inhibited tumor growth remarkably upon NIR laser irradiation, and even extended survivability of the gastric cancer-bearing mice. The CD44v6-GNS nanoprobes exhibited great potential for applications of gastric cancer targeted imaging and photothermal therapy in the near future.

Shape and surface effects on the cytotoxicity of nanoparticles: Gold nanospheres versus gold nanostars

Gold nanoparticles are materials with unique optical properties that have made them very attractive for numerous biomedical applications. With the increasing discovery of techniques to synthesize novel nanoparticles such as star-shaped gold nanoparticles for biomedical applications, the safety and performance of these new nanomaterials must be systematically assessed before use. In this study, gold nanostars (AuNSTs) with multibranched surface structures were synthesized, and their influence on the cytotoxicity of human skin fibroblasts and rat fat pad endothelial cells (RFPECs) were assessed and compared with that of gold nanospheres (AuNSPs) with unbranched surfaces. Results showed that the AuNSPs with diameters of approximately 61.46 nm showed greater toxicity with fibroblast cells and RFPECs compared with the synthesized AuNSTs with diameters of approximately 33.69 nm. The AuNSPs were lethal at concentrations of 40 μg/mL for both cell lines, whereas the AuNSTs were less toxic at higher concentrations (400 μg/mL). The calculated IC50 (50% inhibitory concentration) values of the AuNSPs exposed to fibroblast cells were greater at 1 and 4 days of culture (26.4 and 27.7 μg/mL, respectively) compared with the RFPECs (13.6 and 13.8 μg/mL, respectively), indicating that the AuNSPs have a greater toxicity to endothelial cells. It was proposed that possible factors that could be promoting the reduced toxicity effects of the AuNSTs to fibroblast cells and RFPECs, compared with the AuNSPs may be size, surface chemistry, and shape of the gold nanoparticles. The reduced cell toxicity observed with the AuNSTs suggests that AuNSTs may be a promising material for use in biomedical applications.

Reversibly extracellular pH controlled cellular uptake and photothermal therapy by PEGylated mixed-charge gold nanostars

Shielding nanoparticles from nonspecific interactions with normal cells/tissues before they reach and after they leave tumors is crucial for the selective delivery of NPs into tumor cells. By utilizing the reversible protonation of weak electrolytic groups to pH changes, long-chain amine/carboxyl-terminated polyethylene glycol (PEG) decorated gold nanostars (GNSs) are designed, exhibiting reversible, significant, and sensitive response in cell affinity and therapeutic efficacy to the extracellular pH (pHe) gradient between normal tissues and tumors. This smart nanosystem shows good dispersity and unimpaired photothermal efficacy in complex bioenvironment at pH 6.4 and 7.4 even when their surface charge is neutral. One PEGylated mixed-charge GNSs with certain surface composition, GNS-N/C 4, exhibits high cell affinity and therapeutic efficacy at pH 6.4, and low affinity and almost "zero" damage to cells at pH 7.4. Remarkably, this significant and sensitive response in cell affinity and therapeutic efficacy is reversible as local pH alternated. In vivo, GNS-N/C 4 shows higher accumulation in tumors and improved photothermal therapeutic efficacy than pH-insensitive GNSs. This newly developed smart nanosystem, whose cell affinity reversibly transforms in response to pHe gradient with unimpaired biostability, provides a novel effective means of tumor-selective therapy.

Bismuth sulfide nanorods as a precision nanomedicine for in vivo multimodal imaging-guided photothermal therapy of tumor

Here, we present a precision cancer nanomedicine based on Bi(2)S(3) nanorods (NRs) designed specifically for multispectral optoacoustic tomography (MSOT)/X-ray computed tomography (CT)-guided photothermal therapy (PTT). The as-prepared Bi(2)S(3) NRs possess ideal photothermal effect and contrast enhancement in MSOT/CT bimodal imaging. These features make them simultaneously act as "satellite" and "precision targeted weapon" for the visual guide to destruction of tumors in vivo, realizing effective tumor destruction and metastasis inhibition after intravenous injection. In addition, toxicity screening confirms that Bi(2)S(3) NRs have well biocompatibility. This triple-modality-nanoparticle approach enables simultaneously precise cancer therapy and therapeutic monitoring.

Gold nanoparticles for photoacoustic imaging

Photoacoustic (PA) imaging is a biomedical imaging modality that provides functional information regarding the cellular and molecular signatures of tissue by using endogenous and exogenous contrast agents. There has been tremendous effort devoted to the development of PA imaging agents, and gold nanoparticles as exogenous contrast agents have great potential for PA imaging due to their inherent and geometrically induced optical properties. The gold-based nanoparticles that are most commonly employed for PA imaging include spheres, rods, shells, prisms, cages, stars and vesicles. This article provides an overview of the current state of research in utilizing these gold nanomaterials for PA imaging of cancer, atherosclerotic plaques, brain function and image-guided therapy.

PEGylated gold nanoprisms for photothermal therapy at low laser power density

Small-sized PEGylated gold nanoprisms with ultrahigh photothermal conversion efficacy were achieved to induce photothermal therapy under a low power density laser.

Facile preparation of albumin-stabilized gold nanostars for the targeted photothermal ablation of cancer cells

BSA–FA conjugation was used as a stabilizer to synthesize gold nanostars (BSA–FA–AuNSs). The prepared BSA–FA–AuNSs should have a great potential as photothermal conversion agents for the receptor-mediated treatment of cancer cells.

In vivo pharmacokinetic features and biodistribution of star and rod shaped gold nanoparticles by multispectral optoacoustic tomography

Multispectral optoacoustic tomography (MSOT) provides a real-time monitoring method to evaluate gold nanoparticles' pharmacokinetics and biodistribution.

Gold nanostars functionalized with amine-terminated PEG for X-ray/CT imaging and photothermal therapy

We present the great potential of gold nanostars decorated with amine-terminated PEG in the application of X-ray/CT-guided photothermal therapy.

Early-stage imaging of nanocarrier-enhanced chemotherapy response in living subjects by scalable photoacoustic microscopy

Conventional evaluation methods of chemotherapeutic efficacy such as tissue biopsy and anatomical measurement are either invasive with potential complications or dilatory to capture the rapid pathological changes. Here, a sensitive and resolution-scalable photoacoustic microscopy (PAM) with theranostic nanoformulation was developed to noninvasively monitor the therapy response in a timely manner. Ultrasmall graphene oxide nanosheets were designed as both drug-loading vehicle and photoacoustic signal amplifier to the tumor. With the signal enhancement by the injected contrast agents, the subtle microvascular changes of the chemotherapy response in tumor were advantagely revealed by our PAM system, which was much earlier than the morphological measurement by standard imaging techniques. High tumor uptake of the enhanced nanodrug with Cy5.5 labeling was validated by fluorescence imaging. At different observation scales, PAM offered unprecedented sensitivity of optical absorption and high spatial resolution over optical imaging. Our studies demonstrate the PAM system with synergistic theranostic strategy to be a multiplexing platform for tumor diagnosis, drug delivery, and chemotherapy response monitoring at a very early stage and in an effective way.

Core-shell Pd@Au nanoplates as theranostic agents for in-vivo photoacoustic imaging, CT imaging, and photothermal therapy

Uniform plasmonic Pd@Au core-shell bimetallic nanoplates are synthesized by seeded growth strategy. Surface modified with SH-PEG makes it good biocompatibility, prolonged blood circulation, and relatively high tumor accumulation. Enhanced tumor contrast effects can be obtained for in vivo photoacoustic/CT imaging after intravenous injection of Pd@Au-PEG. Moreover, efficient photothermal tumor ablation is achieved, guided by the imaging techniques. This work promises further exploration of the superiority of 2D nanostructures for in vivo biomedical applications.

Novel 19F activatable probe for the detection of matrix metalloprotease-2 activity by MRI/MRS

Matrix metalloproteases (MMPs) have been found to be highly expressed in a variety of malignant tumor tissues. Noninvasive visualization of MMP activity may play an important role in the diagnosis of MMP associated diseases. Here we report the design and synthesis of a set of fluorine-19 dendron-based magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) probes for real-time imaging of MMP-2 activity. The probes have the following features: (a) symmetrical fluorine atoms; (b) the number of fluorine atoms can be increased through facile chemical modification; (c) readily accessible peptide sequence as the MMP-2 substrate; (d) activatable ¹⁹F signal (off/on mode) via paramagnetic metal ion incorporation. Following optimization for water solubility, one of the probes was selected to evaluate MMP-2 activity by ¹⁹F magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS). Our results showed that the fluorine signal increased by 8.5-fold in the presence of MMP-2. The specific cleavage site was verified by mass spectrometry. The selected probe was further applied to detect secreted MMP-2 activity of living SCC7 squamous cell carcinoma cells. The fluorine signal was increased by 4.8-fold by MRS analysis after 24 h incubation with SCC7 cells. This type of fluorine probe can be applied to evaluate other enzyme activities by simply tuning the substrate structures. This symmetrical fluorine dendron-based probe design extends the scope of the existing ¹⁹F MRI agents and provides a simple but robust method for real-time ¹⁹F MRI application.

A promising road with challenges: where are gold nanoparticles in translational research?

Nanoenabled technology holds great potential for health issues and biological research. Among the numerous inorganic nanoparticles that are available today, gold nanoparticles are fully developed as therapeutic and diagnostic agents both in vitro and in vivo due to their physicochemical properties. Owing to this, substantial work has been conducted in terms of developing biosensors for noninvasive and targeted tumor diagnosis and treatment. Some studies have even expanded into clinical trials. This article focuses on the fundamentals and synthesis of gold nanoparticles, as well as the latest, most promising applications in cancer research, such as molecular diagnostics, immunosensors, surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy and bioimaging. Challenges to their further translational development are also discussed.

Development of human serum albumin conjugated with near-infrared dye for photoacoustic tumor imaging

Photoacoustic (PA) imaging has emerged as a noninvasive diagnostic method which detects ultrasonic waves thermoelastically induced by optical absorbers irradiated with laser. For tumor diagnosis, PA contrast agent has been proposed to enhance the PA effect for detecting tumors sensitively. Here, we prepared a human serum albumin (HSA) conjugated with indocyanine green (ICG) as a PA contrast agent allowing enhanced permeability and retention effect for sensitive tumor imaging. The feasibility of PA imaging with HSA-ICG to detect allografted tumors was evaluated in tumor-bearing mice. In vivo fluorescence imaging and radiolabeled biodistribution study showed that the biodistribution dramatically changed as the number of ICG bound to HSA increased, and the maximum accumulation of ICG was achieved when around three ICG molecules were loaded on an HSA. In vivo PA imaging demonstrated a tumor-selective and dose-dependent increase of PA signal intensity in mice injected with HSA-ICG (R2 = 0.88, 387% increase for HSA-ICG, 104 nmol ICG). In conclusion, HSA-ICG clearly visualized the allografted tumors with high tumor-to-background ratios having high quantitative and spatial resolution for the sensitive PA imaging of tumors. HSA-ICG could be useful as a favorable contrast agent for PA tumor imaging for the management of cancer.

In vivo quantitative photoacoustic microscopy of gold nanostar kinetics in mouse organs

We developed a high-resolution photoacoustic microscopy (PAM) system with a near-infrared (NIR) laser to noninvasively monitor the distribution of gold nanostar (GNS) in blood vessels, liver and spleen in mice. Photoacoustic images of organs at deep depths were continuously acquired in vivo every 30 minutes after a single dose of GNS by tail vein injection. The experimental results showed that GNS accumulated significantly in both liver and spleen from blood circulation after administration, which was qualitatively validated by fluorescence imaging. Our studies demonstrate that PAM might be potentially used for noninvasive tracing the kinetics of exogenous nanoparticles in biological system.

Synergistic delivery of gold nanorods using multifunctional microbubbles for enhanced plasmonic photothermal therapy

Plasmonic photothermal therapy (PPTT) using plasmonic nanoparticles as efficient photoabsorbing agents has been proposed previously. One critical step in PPTT is to effectively deliver gold nanoparticles into the cells. This study demonstrates that the delivery of gold nanorods (AuNRs) can be greatly enhanced by combining the following three mechanisms: AuNRs encapsulated in protein-shell microbubbles (AuMBs), molecular targeting, and sonoporation employing acoustic cavitation of microbubbles (MBs). Both in vitro and in vivo tests were performed. For molecular targeting, the AuMBs were modified with anti-VEGFR2. Once bound to the angiogenesis markers, the MBs were destroyed by ultrasound to release the AuNRs and the release was confirmed by photoacoustic measurements. Additionally, acoustic cavitation was induced during MB destruction for sonoporation (i.e., increase in transient cellular permeability). The measured inertial cavitation dose was positively correlated with the temperature increase at the tumor site. The quantity of AuNRs delivered into the cells was also determined by measuring the mass spectrometry and observed using third-harmonic-generation microscopy and two-photon fluorescence microscopy. A temperature increase of 20°C was achieved in vitro. The PPTT results in vivo also demonstrated that the temperature increase (>45°C) provided a sufficiently high degree of hyperthermia. Therefore, synergistic delivery of AuNRs was demonstrated.

Multifunctional photosensitizer-based contrast agents for photoacoustic imaging

Photoacoustic imaging is a novel hybrid imaging modality combining the high spatial resolution of optical imaging with the high penetration depth of ultrasound imaging. Here, for the first time, we evaluate the efficacy of various photosensitizers that are widely used as photodynamic therapeutic (PDT) agents as photoacoustic contrast agents. Photoacoustic imaging of photosensitizers exhibits advantages over fluorescence imaging, which is prone to photobleaching and autofluorescence interference. In this work, we examined the photoacoustic activity of 5 photosensitizers: zinc phthalocyanine, protoporphyrin IX, 2,4-bis [4-(N,N-dibenzylamino)-2,6-dihydroxyphenyl] squaraine, chlorin e6 and methylene blue in phantoms, among which zinc phthalocyanine showed the highest photoacoustic activity. Subsequently, we evaluated its tumor localization efficiency and biodistribution at multiple time points in a murine model using photoacoustic imaging. We observed that the probe localized at the tumor within 10 minutes post injection, reaching peak accumulation around 1 hour and was cleared within 24 hours, thus, demonstrating the potential of photosensitizers as photoacoustic imaging contrast agents in vivo. This means that the known advantages of photosensitizers such as preferential tumor uptake and PDT efficacy can be combined with photoacoustic imaging capabilities to achieve longitudinal monitoring of cancer progression and therapy in vivo.

Triphase interface synthesis of plasmonic gold bellflowers as near-infrared light mediated acoustic and thermal theranostics

We present a novel gold bellflower (GBF) platform with multiple-branched petals, prepared by a liquid-liquid-gas triphase interface system, for photoacoustic imaging (PAI)-guided photothermal therapy (PTT). Upon near-infrared (NIR) laser irradiation, the GBFs, with strong NIR absorption, showed very strong PA response and an ultrahigh photothermal conversion efficiency (η, ∼74%) among the reported photothermal conversion agents. The excellent performance in PAI and PTT is mainly attributed to the unique features of the GBFs: (i) multiple-branched petals with an enhanced local electromagnetic field, (ii) long narrow gaps between adjacent petals that induce a strong plasmonic coupling effect, and (iii) a bell-shaped nanostructure that can effectively amplify the acoustic signals during the acoustic propagation. Besides the notable PTT and an excellent PAI effect, the NIR-absorbing GBFs may also find applications in NIR light-triggered drug delivery, catalysis, surface enhanced Raman scattering, stealth, antireflection, IR sensors, telecommunications, and the like.

Palladium nanosheets as highly stable and effective contrast agents for in vivo photoacoustic molecular imaging

A stable and efficient contrast agent is highly desirable for photoacoustic (PA) imaging applications. Recently gold nanostructures have been widely reported and studied for PA imaging and photothermal therapy. However, the structures of the nonspherical gold nanoparticles are easily destroyed after laser irradiation and thus may fail to complete the intended tasks. In this study, we propose to apply palladium nanosheets (PNSs), with strong optical absorption in the near-infrared (NIR) region, as a new class of exogenous PA contrast agents. PA and ultrasound (US) images were acquired sequentially by a portable and fast photoacoustic tomography (PAT) system with a hand-held transducer. Significant and long-lasting imaging enhancement in SCC7 head and neck squamous cell carcinoma was successfully observed in mice by PAT over time after tail vein administration of PNSs. The morphology and functional perfusion of the tumors were delineated in PA images due to the nanoparticle accumulation. PAT of the main organs was also conducted ex vivo to trace the fate of PNSs, which was further validated by inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry (ICP-AES). No obvious toxic effect was observed by in vitro MTT assay and ex vivo histological examination 7 days after PNS administration. With the combination of a portable imaging instrument and signal specificity, PNSs might be applied as stable and effective agents for photoacoustic cancer detection, diagnosis and treatment guidance.

Structural and functional photoacoustic molecular tomography aided by emerging contrast agents

Photoacoustic tomography (PAT) can offer structural, functional and molecular contrasts at scalable observation level. By ultrasonically overcoming the strong optical scattering, this imaging technology can reach centimeters penetration depth while retaining high spatial resolution in biological tissue. Recent extensive research has been focused on developing new contrast agents to improve the imaging sensitivity, specificity and efficiency. These emerging materials have substantially accelerated PAT applications in signal sensing, functional imaging, biomarker labeling and therapy monitoring etc. Here, the potentials of different optical probes as PAT contrast agents were elucidated. We first describe the instrumental embodiments and the measured functional parameters, then focus on emerging contrast agent-based PAT applications, and finally discuss the challenges and prospects.