Molecular imaging of hypoxia with radiolabelled agents. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2009;36:1674-1686. [PMID: 19565239 PMCID: PMC2758191 DOI: 10.1007/s00259-009-1195-9]

Effects of a non thermal plasma treatment alone or in combination with gemcitabine in a MIA PaCa2-luc orthotopic pancreatic carcinoma model

Pancreatic tumors are the gastrointestinal cancer with the worst prognosis in humans and with a survival rate of 5% at 5 years. Nowadays, no chemotherapy has demonstrated efficacy in terms of survival for this cancer. Previous study focused on the development of a new therapy by non thermal plasma showed significant effects on tumor growth for colorectal carcinoma and glioblastoma. To allow targeted treatment, a fibered plasma (Plasma Gun) was developed and its evaluation was performed on an orthotopic mouse model of human pancreatic carcinoma using a MIA PaCa2-luc bioluminescent cell line. The aim of this study was to characterize this pancreatic carcinoma model and to determine the effects of Plasma Gun alone or in combination with gemcitabine. During a 36 days period, quantitative BLI could be used to follow the tumor progression and we demonstrated that plasma gun induced an inhibition of MIA PaCa2-luc cells proliferation in vitro and in vivo and that this effect could be improved by association with gemcitabine possibly thanks to its radiosensitizing properties.

On the structural modification of 2-nitroimidazole-(99m)Tc(CO)(3) complex, a hypoxia marker, for improving in vivo pharmacokinetics

INTRODUCTION

A 2-nitroimidazole-(99m)Tc(CO)(3) complex reported earlier showed promise with respect to its uptake and retention in hypoxic tumor. However, significant uptake and slow clearance from liver imposed severe limitations towards advocating its possible practical utility. In an attempt to improving its liver clearance, an ether linkage, which is known to help in liver clearance, was introduced in the molecule.

METHODS

The 2-nitroimidazole iminodiacetic acid (IDA) derivative containing an ether linkage was synthesized in a five step procedure from 2-nitroimidazole. This derivative was radiolabeled using [(99m)Tc(CO)(3)(H(2)O)(3)](+) precursor complex. The corresponding Re(CO)(3) analogue was also synthesized in the macroscopic level for structural characterization. The (99m)Tc(CO)(3) complex was evaluated in an animal model bearing fibrosarcoma tumor.

RESULTS

The in vivo evaluation of the complex indicated that, as envisaged, introduction of the ether linkage has improved clearance from the liver. The complex also showed higher retention in tumor compared to the 2-nitroimidazole-IDA-(99m)Tc(CO)(3) complex reported earlier. Though the tumor to muscle ratio improved with time, the tumor to blood ratio did not show any significant improvement. Despite improved liver clearance, there was significant liver activity present even at 3h p.i. attributable to gradual accumulation of activity cleared from muscle and blood.

CONCLUSIONS

Though the introduction of ether linkage improved liver clearance of the modified 2-nitroimidazole complex, it was found that a single ether linkage was not sufficient to achieve the desirable level of clearance. Probably, a linker with multiple ether groups, such as a di- or tri-ethylene glycol spacer, may be a possible solution to this issue.

Electrophilic addition of chlorine monofluoride for PET tracers

PURPOSE

We have studied the utility of [(18)F]ClF electrophilic addition to the carbon-carbon double bond of analogues of a model positron emission tomography (PET) tracer, [(18)F]EF5. The consequence of simultaneous chlorine/fluorine addition on lipophilicity and biological activity of the molecule is evaluated.

PROCEDURES

Post-target produced [(18)F]F2 was reacted with Cl2 to produce [(18)F]ClF, which was used in electrophilic addition.

RESULTS

[(18)F]ClF was produced and used to label chlorinated analogues of [(18)F]EF5. The chlorinated analogues, [(18)F]EF4Cla and [(18)F]EF4Clb, were synthesized simultaneously. The in vivo uptake of the analogues compared well with [(18)F]EF5 uptake in tumor-bearing mice.

CONCLUSION

[(18)F]ClF is a suitable labeling reagent for electrophilic addition to double bonds of PET tracers. The results show that the modification of the pentafluoro group of [(18)F]EF5 by monofluorine-for-chlorine exchange affected the lipophilicity, but the hypoxia avidity of these molecules was not apparently altered.

A molecular imaging primer: modalities, imaging agents, and applications

Molecular imaging is revolutionizing the way we study the inner workings of the human body, diagnose diseases, approach drug design, and assess therapies. The field as a whole is making possible the visualization of complex biochemical processes involved in normal physiology and disease states, in real time, in living cells, tissues, and intact subjects. In this review, we focus specifically on molecular imaging of intact living subjects. We provide a basic primer for those who are new to molecular imaging, and a resource for those involved in the field. We begin by describing classical molecular imaging techniques together with their key strengths and limitations, after which we introduce some of the latest emerging imaging modalities. We provide an overview of the main classes of molecular imaging agents (i.e., small molecules, peptides, aptamers, engineered proteins, and nanoparticles) and cite examples of how molecular imaging is being applied in oncology, neuroscience, cardiology, gene therapy, cell tracking, and theranostics (therapy combined with diagnostics). A step-by-step guide to answering biological and/or clinical questions using the tools of molecular imaging is also provided. We conclude by discussing the grand challenges of the field, its future directions, and enormous potential for further impacting how we approach research and medicine.

In vitro and in vivo evaluation of [(18)F]F-GAZ, a novel oxygen-mimetic azomycin-glucose conjugate, for imaging hypoxic tumor

Several F-18-labeled 2-nitroimidazole (azomycin) derivatives have been proposed for imaging hypoxia using positron emission tomography (PET). Their cell penetration is based on passive diffusion, which limits their intracellular concentration maxima. The purpose of this study was to investigate the uptake of N-(2-[(18)F]fluoro-3-(6-O-glucosyl)propyl-azomycin ([(18)F]F-GAZ), a new azomycin-glucose conjugate, in vitro and in vivo. [(18)F]F-GAZ was synthesized from its tetraacetyl nosylate precursor by nucleophilic radiofluorination. [(18)F]F-GAZ was evaluated in vivo in EMT-6 tumor-bearing Balb/C mice utilizing the PET and biodistribution analysis. In vitro uptake of [(18)F]FDG by EMT-6 cells was measured in the presence of unlabeled F-GAZ, 2-FDG, and D-glucose. [(18)F]F-GAZ was rapidly cleared from all tissues, including the blood pool and kidneys, with ultimate accumulation in the urinary bladder. Uptake of tracer doses of [(18)F]F-GAZ into EMT-6 tumors was fast, reaching a standardized uptake value of 0.66±0.05 within 5-6 minutes postinjection (p.i.), and decreased to 0.24±0.04 by 60 minutes p.i. (n=6). A tumor-muscle ratio of 1.87±0.18 was observed after 60 minutes. Total uptake of [(18)F]F-GAZ in tumors (60 minutes) amounted to 1.25%±0.15% ID/g versus 0.61%±0.14% ID/g (n=4) in muscle. Similar biodistribution and excretion were observed using carrier-added (100 mg/kg) doses of F-GAZ. In vitro, D-glucose and unlabeled 2-FDG were two orders of magnitude more potent than F-GAZ as competitive inhibitors of [(18)F]FDG uptake into EMT-6 cells. Besides its interaction with glucose transporters, F-GAZ seems to be not transported in the presence of glucose. Furthermore, [(18)F]F-GAZ is unlikely to be effective as a hypoxia imaging agent. The low in vivo toxicity and substantial retention in tumor observed at high doses of F-GAZ do provide rationale for further testing as a radiosensitizer for external beam radiation therapy of radioresistant, hypoxic tumors.

Innovation in cancer imaging

Cancer is rapidly becoming the worldwide leading cause of premature death. Iconographic techniques have traditionally provided information on tumor anatomy. The recent introduction of functional and molecular imaging techniques allows probing tumor physiology and biology in addition to mere anatomical description. In addition to the research implications, these novel imaging techniques offer early response assessment and target visualization which, in the era of personalized medicine, may offer significant advances in cancer therapy. Here, we provide an overview of the most important developments in cancer imaging, with a focus on the clinical applications.

Overcoming disappointing results with antiangiogenic therapy by targeting hypoxia

Cancer cells rely on angiogenesis to fulfil their need for oxygen and nutrients; hence, agents targeting angiogenic pathways and mediators have been investigated as potential cancer drugs. Although this strategy has demonstrated delayed tumour progression--leading to progression-free survival and overall survival benefits compared with standard therapy--in some patients, the results are more modest than predicted. A significant number of patients either do not respond to antiangiogenic agents or fairly rapidly develop resistance to them, which raises questions about how resistance develops and how it can be overcome. Furthermore, whether cancers, once they develop resistance, become more invasive or lead to metastatic disease remains unclear. Several mechanisms of resistance have been recently proposed and emerging evidence indicates that, under certain experimental conditions, antiangiogenic agents increase intratumour hypoxia by promoting vessel pruning and inhibiting neoangiogenesis. Indeed, several studies have highlighted the possibility that inhibitors of VEGF (and its receptors) can promote an invasive metastatic switch, in part by creating an increasingly hypoxic tumour microenvironment. As a potential remedy, a number of therapeutic approaches have been investigated that target the hypoxic tumour compartment to improve the clinical outcome of antiangiogenic therapy.

Modelling and simulation of the influence of acute and chronic hypoxia on [18F]fluoromisonidazole PET imaging

Tumour hypoxia can be assessed by positron emission tomography (PET) using radiotracers like [(18)F]fluoromisonidazole (Fmiso). The purpose of this work was to independently investigate the influence of chronic and acute hypoxia on the retention of Fmiso on the microscale. This was approached by modelling and simulating tissue oxygenation and Fmiso dynamics on the microscale based on tumour histology. Diffusion of oxygen and Fmiso molecules in tissue- and oxygen-dependent Fmiso binding were included in the model. Moreover, a model of fluctuating vascular oxygen tension was incorporated to theoretically predict the effects of acute hypoxia. Simulated tissue oxygen tensions (PO(2)) are strongly influenced by the modelled periodical fluctuations (period 40 min, total amplitude 10 mmHg and mean 35 mmHg). Fluctuations led to variations in mean PO(2) of up to 41% and in the hypoxic fraction (PO(2)  < 5 mmHg) from 56% up to 65%. Significant Fmiso retention is caused by chronic (87%) as well as acute hypoxia (13%). By simulating Fmiso injection during different phases of the vascular PO(2) fluctuation cycle, it was found that acute hypoxia of an empirically valid magnitude does not influence the reproducibility of PET imaging. Thus, it may be impossible to separate acute and chronic hypoxia from serial PET images.

Hypoxia imaging predicts success of hypoxia-induced cytosine deaminase/5-fluorocytosine gene therapy in a murine lung tumor model

Tc-99m-HL91 is a hypoxia imaging biomarker. The aim of this study was to investigate the value of Tc-99m-HL91 imaging for hypoxia-induced cytosine deaminase (CD)/5-fluorocytosine (5-FC) gene therapy in a murine lung tumor model. C57BL/6 mice were implanted with Lewis lung carcinoma cells transduced with the hypoxia-inducible promoter-driven CD gene (LL2/CD) or luciferase gene (LL2/Luc) serving as the control. When tumor volumes reached 100 mm(3), pretreatment images were acquired after injection of Tc-99m-HL91. The mice were divided into low and high hypoxic groups based on the tumor-to-non-tumor ratio of Tc-99m-HL91. They were injected daily with 5-FC (500 mg kg(-1)) or the vehicle for 1 week. When tumor volumes reached 1000 mm(3), autoradiography and histological examinations were performed. Treatment with 5-FC delayed tumor growth and enhanced the survival of mice bearing high hypoxic LL2/CD tumors. The therapeutic effect of hypoxia-induced CD/5-FC gene therapy was more pronounced in high hypoxic tumors than in low hypoxic tumors. This study provides the first evidence that Tc-99m-HL91 can serve as an imaging biomarker for predicting the treatment responses of hypoxia-regulated CD/5-FC gene therapy in animal tumor models. Our results suggest that hypoxia imaging using Tc-99m-HL91 has the predictive value for the success of hypoxia-directed treatment regimens.

Functional imaging: what evidence is there for its utility in clinical trials of targeted therapies?

Key issues in early clinical trials of targeted agents include the determination of target inhibition, rational patient selection based on pre-treatment tumour characteristics, and assessment of tumour response in the absence of actual shrinkage. There is accumulating evidence that functional imaging using advanced techniques such as dynamic contrast enhanced (DCE)-magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), DCE-computerised tomography (CT) and DCE-ultrasound, diffusion weighted-MRI, magnetic resonance spectroscopy and positron emission tomography-CT using various labelled radioactive tracers has the potential to address all three. This article reviews this evidence with examples from trials using targeted agents with established clinical efficacy and summarises the clinical utility of the various techniques. We therefore recommend that input from specialist radiologists is sought at the early stages of trial design, in order to ensure that functional imaging is incorporated appropriately for the agent under study. There is an urgent need to strengthen the evidence base for these techniques as they evolve, and to ensure standardisation of the methodology.

Clinical molecular imaging with radiotracers: current status

Molecular imaging is defined as the visualization, characterization, and measurement of biological processes at the molecular and cellular levels in humans and other living systems. Most clinical molecular imaging is currently done using radioisotope-labeled agents to define the activity of various metabolic pathways in vivo or to determine the distribution and density of various receptors relevant to human disease. This paper briefly reviews most of the commonly used radiopharmaceuticals in nuclear medicine, as well as newer agents that are likely to become available in the near future. The metabolic pathways include those relevant to the thyroid, parathyroid, heart, brain, bones, kidneys, liver, pancreas, adrenals and tumor. The receptor systems include agents useful in evaluating movement disorders, dementia, cardiac sympathetic enervation and neoangiogenesis. Receptor systems relevant to tumors include somatostatin receptors (neuroendocrine tumors), prostate-specific membrane antigen, carbonic anhydrase IX (renal cancer), and CD-20 (lymphoma). These agents, and newer agents that are being developed, are likely to become critical in the development of personalized medicine, where it will become increasingly important to determine whether a treatment that is targeted to a specific metabolic pathway or receptor is likely to be successful.

Hypoxia imaging using PET and SPECT: the effects of anesthetic and carrier gas on [Cu]-ATSM, [Tc]-HL91 and [F]-FMISO tumor hypoxia accumulation

Background

Preclinical imaging requires anaesthesia to reduce motion-related artefacts. For direct translational relevance, anaesthesia must not significantly alter experimental outcome. This study reports on the effects of both anaesthetic and carrier gas upon the uptake of [⁶⁴Cu]-CuATSM, [^99mTc]-HL91 and [¹⁸F]-FMISO in a preclinical model of tumor hypoxia.

Methodology/Principal Findings

The effect of carrier gas and anaesthetic was studied in 6 groups of CaNT-bearing CBA mice using [⁶⁴Cu]-CuATSM, [^99mTc]-HL91 or [¹⁸F]-FMISO. Mice were anaesthetised with isoflurane in air, isoflurane in pure oxygen, with ketamine/xylazine or hypnorm/hypnovel whilst breathing air, or in the awake state whilst breathing air or pure oxygen. PET or SPECT imaging was performed after which the mice were killed for organ/tumor tracer quantitation. Tumor hypoxia was confirmed. Arterial blood gas analysis was performed for the different anaesthetic regimes. The results demonstrate marked influences on tumor uptake of both carrier gas and anaesthetic, and show differences between [^99mTc]-HL91, [¹⁸F]-FMISO and [⁶⁴Cu]-CuATSM. [^99mTc]-HL91 tumor uptake was only altered significantly by administration of 100% oxygen. The latter was not the case for [¹⁸F]-FMISO and [⁶⁴Cu]-CuATSM. Tumor-to-muscle ratio (TMR) for both compounds was reduced significantly when either oxygen or anaesthetics (isoflurane in air, ketamine/xylazine or hypnorm/hypnovel) were introduced. For [¹⁸F]-FMISO no further decrease was measured when both isoflurane and oxygen were administered, [⁶⁴Cu]-CuATSM did show an additional significant decrease in TMR. When using the same anaesthetic regimes, the extent of TMR reduction was less pronounced for [⁶⁴Cu]-CuATSM than for [¹⁸F]-FMISO (40–60% versus 70% reduction as compared to awake animals breathing air).

Conclusions/Significance

The use of anaesthesia can have profound effects on the experimental outcome. More importantly, all tested anaesthetics reduced tumor-hypoxia uptake. Anaesthesia cannot be avoided in preclinical studies but great care has to be taken in preclinical models of hypoxia as anaesthesia effects cannot be generalised across applications, nor disease states.

Role of FDG-PET as a biological marker for predicting the hypoxic status of tongue cancer

BACKGROUND

To determine whether 2-[(18)F]fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose positron emission tomography (FDG-PET) could serve as a useful technique predicting tumor hypoxia and prognosis in tongue cancer, we assessed the relationship between FDG uptake and the levels of hypoxia-related markers.

METHODS

Tumor uptake of FDG in 33 patients with T2 tongue cancer was assessed by measuring maximum standardized uptake values (SUVmax). Expression of hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-1α, carbonic anhydrase (CA)-9, glucose transporter (GLUT)-1, and erythropoietin receptor (EPOR), was determined by immunohistochemical staining. Correlation between SUVmax and the expression of hypoxia-related markers was assessed and multivariate analysis was performed to determine what parameters affected clinical outcomes.

RESULTS

We observed strong correlations between SUVmax and expression of HIF-1α (p < .05), CA-9 (p < .01), and GLUT-1 (p < .01). SUVmax, HIF-1α expression, and tumor grade were significant independent predictors of disease-free survival (DFS).

CONCLUSION

SUVmax may be a good noninvasive biomarker for prediction of hypoxic status and prognosis of patients with T2 tongue cancer.

Synthesis and evaluation of a novel (99m)Tc-labeled bioreductive probe for tumor hypoxia imaging

Tumor hypoxia is closely associated with the malignant progression and/or the high metastatic ability of tumors and often induces resistance to chemo- and/or radiotherapy. Thus, the detection and evaluation of hypoxia is important for the optimization of cancer therapy. We designed a novel (99m)Tc-labeled probe for tumor hypoxia imaging that utilizes bioreductive reactions in hypoxic cells. This probe, which contains a 4-nitrobenzyl ester group, is reduced in hypoxic cells to produce a corresponding carboxylate anion that cannot penetrate cell membranes because of its hydrophilicity and negative charge; therefore, it is expected to be trapped inside hypoxic cells. Based on this unique strategy, we synthesized the Technetium-99m ((99m)Tc)-labeled probe (99m)Tc-SD32. The uptake of (99m)Tc-SD32 in tumor cells was investigated under normoxic and hypoxic conditions. (99m)Tc-SD32 showed sufficient accumulation and good retention in hypoxic cells. In addition, we demonstrated that (99m)Tc-SD32 was subjected to bioreduction in hypoxic cells and was trapped as the corresponding carboxylate anion. These results indicated that (99m)Tc-SD32 would be a promising agent for in vivo hypoxia imaging.

Applications of molecular MRI and optical imaging in cancer

Some of the most exciting advances in molecular-functional imaging of cancer are occurring at the interface between chemistry and imaging. Several of these advances have occurred through the development of novel imaging probes that report on molecular pathways, the tumor micro-environment and the response of tumors to treatment; as well as through novel image-guided platforms such as nanoparticles and nanovesicles that deliver therapeutic agents against specific targets and pathways. Cancer cells have a remarkable ability to evade destruction despite the armamentarium of drugs currently available. While these drugs can destroy cancer cells, normal tissue toxicity is a major limiting factor, a problem further compounded by poor drug delivery. One major challenge for chemistry continues to be to eliminate cancer cells without damaging normal tissues. Here we have selected examples of MRI and optical imaging, to demonstrate how integrating imaging with novel probes can facilitate the successful treatment of this multifaceted disease.

MR evaluation of response to targeted treatment in cancer cells

The development of molecular technologies, together with progressive sophistication of molecular imaging methods, has allowed the further elucidation of the multiple mutations and dysregulatory effects of pathways leading to oncogenesis. Acting against these pathways by specifically targeted agents represents a major challenge for current research efforts in oncology. As conventional anatomically based pharmacological endpoints may be inadequate to monitor the tumor response to these targeted treatments, the identification and use of more appropriate, noninvasive pharmacodynamic biomarkers appear to be crucial to optimize the design, dosage and schedule of these novel therapeutic approaches. An aberrant choline phospholipid metabolism and enhanced flux of glucose derivatives through glycolysis, which sustain the redirection of mitochondrial ATP to glucose phosphorylation, are two major hallmarks of cancer cells. This review focuses on the changes detected in these pathways by MRS in response to targeted treatments. The progress and limitations of our present understanding of the mechanisms underlying MRS-detected phosphocholine accumulation in cancer cells are discussed in the light of gene and protein expression and the activation of different enzymes involved in phosphatidylcholine biosynthesis and catabolism. Examples of alterations induced in the MRS choline profile of cells exposed to different agents or to tumor environmental factors are presented. Current studies aimed at the identification in cancer cells of MRS-detected pharmacodynamic markers of therapies targeted against specific conditional or constitutive cell receptor stimulation are then reviewed. Finally, the perspectives of present efforts addressed to identify enzymes of the phosphatidylcholine cycle as possible novel targets for anticancer therapy are summarized.

Targeting hypoxia in cancer therapy

Hypoxia is a feature of most tumours, albeit with variable incidence and severity within a given patient population. It is a negative prognostic and predictive factor owing to its multiple contributions to chemoresistance, radioresistance, angiogenesis, vasculogenesis, invasiveness, metastasis, resistance to cell death, altered metabolism and genomic instability. Given its central role in tumour progression and resistance to therapy, tumour hypoxia might well be considered the best validated target that has yet to be exploited in oncology. However, despite an explosion of information on hypoxia, there are still major questions to be addressed if the long-standing goal of exploiting tumour hypoxia is to be realized. Here, we review the two main approaches, namely bioreductive prodrugs and inhibitors of molecular targets upon which hypoxic cell survival depends. We address the particular challenges and opportunities these overlapping strategies present, and discuss the central importance of emerging diagnostic tools for patient stratification in targeting hypoxia.

Characterization of positron emission tomography hypoxia tracer uptake and tissue oxygenation via electrochemical modeling

PURPOSE

Unique uptake and retention mechanisms of positron emission tomography (PET) hypoxia tracers make in vivo comparison between them challenging. Differences in imaged uptake of two common hypoxia radiotracers, [(61)Cu]Cu-ATSM and [(18)F]FMISO, were characterized via computational modeling to address these challenges.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

An electrochemical formalism describing bioreductive retention mechanisms of these tracers under steady-state conditions was adopted to relate time-averaged activity concentration to tissue partial oxygen tension (PO(2)), a common metric of hypoxia. Chemical equilibrium constants of product concentration to reactant concentration ratios were determined from free energy changes and reduction potentials of pertinent reactions reported in the literature. Resulting transformation functions between tracer uptake and PO(2) were compared against measured values in preclinical models. Additionally, calculated PO(2) distributions from imaged Cu-ATSM tracer activity concentrations of 12 head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) patients were validated against microelectrode PO(2) measurements in 69 HNSCC patients.

RESULTS

Both Cu-ASTM- and FMISO-modeled PO(2) transformation functions were in agreement with preclinical measured values within single-deviation confidence intervals. High correlation (r(2)=0.94, P<.05) was achieved between modeled PO(2) distributions and measured distributions in the patient populations. On average, microelectrode hypoxia thresholds (2.5 and 5.0 mmHg) corresponded to higher Cu-ATSM uptake [2.5 and 2.0 standardized uptake value (SUV)] and lower FMISO uptake (2.0 and 1.4 SUV). Uncertainties in the models were dominated by variations in the estimated specific activity and intracellular acidity.

CONCLUSIONS

Results indicated that the high dynamic range of Cu-ATSM uptake was representative of a narrow range of low oxygen tension whose values were dependent on microenvironment acidity, while FMISO uptake was representative of a wide range of PO(2) values that were independent of acidity. The models shed light on possible causes of these discrepancies, particularly as it pertains to image contrast, and may prove to be a useful methodology in quantifying relationships between other hypoxia tracers. Comprehensive and robust assessment of tumor hypoxia prior to as well as in response to therapy may be best provided by imaging of multiple hypoxia markers that provide complementary rather than interchangeable information.

Positron emission tomography imaging of cancer biology: current status and future prospects

Positron emission tomography (PET) is one of the most rapidly growing areas of medical imaging, with many applications in the clinical management of patients with cancer. The principal goal of PET imaging is to visualize, characterize, and measure biological processes at the cellular, subcellular, and molecular levels in living subjects using noninvasive procedures. PET imaging takes advantage of the traditional diagnostic imaging techniques and introduces positron-emitting probes to determine the expression of indicative molecular targets at different stages of cancer progression. Although [(18)F]fluorodeoxyglucose ([(18)F]FDG)-PET has been widely utilized for staging and restaging of cancer, evaluation of response to treatment, differentiation of post-therapy alterations from residual or recurrent tumor, and assessment of prognosis, [(18)F]FDG is not a target-specific PET tracer. Over the last decade, numerous target-specific PET tracers have been developed and evaluated in preclinical and clinical studies. This review provides an overview of the current status and trends in the development of non-[(18)F]FDG PET probes in oncology and their application in the investigation of cancer biology.

Molecular imaging-based dose painting: a novel paradigm for radiation therapy prescription

Dose painting is the prescription of a nonuniform radiation dose distribution to the target volume based on functional or molecular images shown to indicate the local risk of relapse. Two prototypical strategies for implementing this novel paradigm in radiation oncology are reviewed: subvolume boosting and dose painting by numbers. Subvolume boosting involves the selection of a "target within the target," defined by image segmentation on the basis of the quantitative information in the image or morphologically, and this is related to image-based target volume selection and delineation. Dose painting by numbers is a voxel-level prescription of dose based on a mathematical transformation of the image intensity of individual pixels. The quantitative use of images to decide both where and how to delivery radiation therapy in an individual case is also called theragnostic imaging. Dose painting targets are imaging surrogates for cellular or microenvironmental phenotypes associated with poor radioresponsiveness. In this review, the focus is on the following positron emission tomography tracers: FDG and choline as surrogates for tumor burden, fluorothymidine as a surrogate for proliferation (or cellular growth fraction) and hypoxia-sensitive tracers, including [(18)F] fluoromisonidazole, EF3, EF5, and (64)Cu-labeled copper(II) diacetyl-di(N(4)-methylthiosemicarbazone) as surrogates of cellular hypoxia. Research advances supporting the clinicobiological rationale for dose painting are reviewed as are studies of the technical feasibility of optimizing and delivering realistic dose painted radiation therapy plans. Challenges and research priorities in this exciting research field are defined and a possible design for a randomized clinical trial of dose painting is presented.

18F-fluromisonidazole PET imaging as a biomarker for the response to 5,6-dimethylxanthenone-4-acetic acid in colorectal xenograft tumors

The aim of this study was to evaluate (18)F-fluromisonidazole ((18)F-FMISO) PET for monitoring the tumor response to the antivascular compound 5,6-dimethylxanthenone-4-acetic acid (DMXAA; vadimezan).

METHODS

(18)F-FMISO PET was performed 3 h before and 24 h after treatment with DMXAA (20 mg/kg) in mice bearing HT29 xenograft tumors. Pimonidazole was coadministered with the first (18)F-FMISO injection, and 2-(2-nitro-1H-imidazol-1-yl)-N-(2,2,3,3,3-pentafluoropropyl)acetamide (EF5) was coadministered with the second one. Hoechst 33342 was administered 5 min before sacrifice. Digital autoradiograms of tumor sections were acquired; this acquisition was followed by immunofluorescence microscopic visualization of pimonidazole, EF5, the Hoechst 33342, CD31, and α-smooth muscle actin.

RESULTS

DMXAA treatment resulted in a marked reduction in the (18)F-FMISO mean standardized uptake value (SUV(mean)) in approximately half of the treated tumors. The reduction in SUV(mean) correlated with a decrease in the fraction of tumor area staining positive for both EF5 and pimonidazole. Compared with untreated controls, tumors with decreasing SUV(mean) had significantly fewer perfused microvessels.

CONCLUSION

(18)F-FMISO PET could distinguish between different tumor responses to DMXAA treatment. However, a reduction in (18)F-FMISO SUV(mean) after DMXAA treatment was indicative of reduced perfusion and therefore delivery of (18)F-FMISO, rather than a reduction in tumor hypoxia.

Therapeutic implications of molecular imaging with PET in the combined modality treatment of lung cancer

Molecular imaging with PET, and certainly integrated PET-CT, combining functional and anatomical imaging, has many potential advantages over anatomical imaging alone in the combined modality treatment of lung cancer. The aim of the current article is to review the available evidence regarding PET with FDG and other tracers in the combined modality treatment of locally advanced lung cancer. The following topics are addressed: tumor volume definition, outcome prediction and the added value of PET after therapy, and finally its clinical implications and future perspectives. The additional value of FDG-PET in defining the primary tumor volume has been established, mainly in regions with atelectasis or post-treatment effects. Selective nodal irradiation (SNI) of FDG-PET positive nodal stations is the preferred treatment in NSCLC, being safe and leading to decreased normal tissue exposure, providing opportunities for dose escalation. First results in SCLC show similar results. FDG-uptake on the pre-treatment PET scan is of prognostic value. Data on the value of pre-treatment FDG-uptake to predict response to combined modality treatment are conflicting, but the limited data regarding early metabolic response during treatment do show predictive value. The FDG response after radical treatment is of prognostic significance. FDG-PET in the follow-up has potential benefit in NSCLC, while data in SCLC are lacking. Radiotherapy boosting of radioresistant areas identified with FDG-PET is subject of current research. Tracers other than (18)FDG are promising for treatment response assessment and the visualization of intra-tumor heterogeneity, but more research is needed before they can be clinically implemented.

Biodistribution and radiation dosimetry of the hypoxia marker 18F-HX4 in monkeys and humans determined by using whole-body PET/CT

OBJECTIVES

F-HX4 is a novel positron emission tomography (PET) tracer for imaging hypoxia. The purpose of this study was to determine the biodistribution and estimate the radiation dose of F-HX4 using whole-body PET/computed tomography (CT) scans in monkeys and humans.

METHODS

Successive whole-body PET/CT scans were done after the injection of F-HX4 in four healthy humans (422±142 MBq) and in three rhesus monkeys (189±3 MBq). Biodistribution was determined from PET images and organ doses were estimated using OLINDA/EXM software.

RESULTS

The bladder, liver, and kidneys showed the highest percentage of the injected radioactivity for humans and monkeys. For humans, approximately 45% of the activity is eliminated by bladder voiding in 3.6 h, and for monkeys 60% is in the bladder content after 3 h. The critical organ is the urinary bladder wall with the highest absorbed radiation dose of 415±18 (monkeys) and 299±38 μGy/MBq (humans), in the 4.8-h bladder voiding interval model. The average value of effective dose for the adult male was estimated at 42±4.2 μSv/MBq from monkey data and 27±2 μSv/MBq from human data.

CONCLUSION

Bladder, kidneys, and liver have the highest uptake of injected F-HX4 activity for both monkeys and humans. The urinary bladder wall receives the highest dose of F-HX4 and is the critical organ. Thus, patients should be encouraged to maintain adequate hydration and void frequently. The effective dose of F-HX4 is comparable with that of other F-based imaging agents.

Current molecular imaging positron emitting radiotracers in oncology

Molecular imaging is one of the fastest growing areas of medical imaging. Positron emission tomography (PET) has been widely used in the clinical management of patients with cancer. Nuclear imaging provides biological information at the cellular, subcellular, and molecular level in living subjects with non-invasive procedures. In particular, PET imaging takes advantage of traditional diagnostic imaging techniques and introduces positron-emitting probes to determine the expression of indicative molecular targets at different stages of cancer. (18)F-fluorodeoxyglucose ((18)F-FDG), the only FDA approved oncological PET tracer, has been widely utilized in cancer diagnosis, staging, restaging, and even monitoring response to therapy; however, (18)F-FDG is not a tumor-specific PET tracer. Over the last decade, many promising tumor-specific PET tracers have been developed and evaluated in preclinical and clinical studies. This review provides an overview of the current non-(18)F-FDG PET tracers in oncology that have been developed based on tumor characteristics such as increased metabolism, hyperproliferation, angiogenesis, hypoxia, apoptosis, and tumor-specific antigens and surface receptors.

Review of positron emission tomography tracers for imaging of tumor hypoxia

Hypoxia plays a critical role in tumor development and aggressiveness and is an important prognostic factor for resistance to antineoplastic treatments; therefore, it is required to measure the hypoxic level of tumor for a favorable outcome. The pretherapy information on the oxygenation status of a tumor microenvironment should also have implications for treatment selection. A diffuse distribution of hypoxia in a tumor might suggest a benefit from a systemic approach, such as a hypoxic cell cytotoxin, tirapazamine, or antigrowth factor drugs to combat the limitations of hypoxia. Alternatively, a more focal hypoxia might benefit from a local/regional approach, such as intensity-modulated radiation therapy-based radiation dose escalation to the hypoxic subvolume. This review anticipates that (18)F-FMISO ((18)F-fluoromisonodazole) and (64)Cu-ATSM-positron emission tomography (PET) will prove useful for selecting individual patients for the most appropriate treatment. The advent of new radiotracers has allowed noninvasive assessment of hypoxia, with the most extensively investigated and validated PET radiotracer for hypoxia to date being (18)F-FMISO. This article discusses the relevance and biology of hypoxia in cells and organ systems and reviews the laboratory and clinical applications of (18)F-FMISO and other agents in oncology.

Molecular imaging of hypoxia

A wide variety of imaging approaches have been developed in the past few decades for monitoring tumor oxygenation and hypoxia in vivo. In particular, nuclear medicine has seen the development of several radiolabeled hypoxia markers and is the preferred method for imaging of tumor hypoxia. Hypoxia imaging is increasingly being used in the clinical setting and is progressing from a mere detection method to application in individualization of chemoradiotherapy.

A new peptide ligand for targeting human carbonic anhydrase IX, identified through the phage display technology

Carbonic anhydrase IX (CAIX) is a transmembrane enzyme found to be overexpressed in various tumors and associated with tumor hypoxia. Ligands binding this target may be used to visualize hypoxia, tumor manifestation or treat tumors by endoradiotherapy.

Radionuclide imaging of perfusion and hypoxia

PURPOSE

We present a review of radionuclide imaging of tumour vascular physiology as it relates to angiogenesis. We focus on clinical trials in human subjects using PET and SPECT to evaluate tumour physiology, in particular blood flow and hypoxia.

METHODS

A systematic review of literature based on MEDLINE searches updated in February 2010 was performed.

RESULTS

Twenty-nine studies were identified for review: 14 dealt with (15)O-water PET perfusion imaging, while 8 dealt with (18)F-fluoromisonidazole PET hypoxia imaging. Five used SPECT methods. The studies varied widely in technical quality and reporting of methods.

CONCLUSIONS

A subset of radionuclide methods offers accurate quantitative scientific observations on tumour vascular physiology of relevance to angiogenesis and its treatment. The relationship between cellular processes of angiogenesis and changing physiological function remains poorly defined. The promise of quantitative functional imaging at high specificity and low administered dose sustains interest in radionuclide methods.

Simultaneous positron emission tomography (PET) assessment of metabolism with ¹⁸F-fluoro-2-deoxy-d-glucose (FDG), proliferation with ¹⁸F-fluoro-thymidine (FLT), and hypoxia with ¹⁸fluoro-misonidazole (F-miso) before and during radiotherapy in patients with non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC): a pilot study

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the changes in tumour proliferation (using FLT), metabolism (using FDG), and hypoxia (using F-miso) during curative (chemo-) radiotherapy (RT) in patients with non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC).

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Thirty PET scans were performed in five patients (4 males, 1 female) that had histological proof of NSCLC and were candidates for curative-intent RT. Three PET-CT (Biograph S16, Siemens) scans were performed before (t(0)) and during (around dose 46 Gy, t(46)) RT with minimal intervals of 48 h between each PET-CT scan. The tracers used were (18)fluoro-2deoxyglucose (FDG) for metabolism, (18)fluorothymidine (FLT) for proliferation, and (18)F-misonidasole (F-miso) for hypoxia. The 3 image sets obtained at each time point were co-registered (rigid: n=9, elastic: n=1, Leonardo, TrueD, Siemens) using FDG PET-CT as reference. VOIs were delineated (40% SUV(max) values were used as a threshold) for tumours and lymph nodes on FDG PET-CT, and they were automatically pasted on FLT and F-miso PET-CT images. ANOVA and correlation analyses were used for comparison of SUV(max) values.

RESULTS

Four tumours and twelve nodes were identified on initial FDG PET-CT images. FLT SUV(max) values were significantly lower (p<0.0006) at t(46) in both tumours and nodes. The decrease in FDG SUV(max) values had a trend towards significance (p=0.048). F-Miso SUV(max) values were significantly higher in tumours than in nodes (p=0.02) and did not change during radiotherapy (p=0.39). A significant correlation was observed between FLT and FDG uptake (r=0.56, p<10(-4)) when all data were pooled together, and they remained similar when the before and during RT data were analysed separately. FDG and F-miso uptakes were significantly correlated (r=0.59, p=0.0004) when all data were analysed together. The best fit was obtained after adjusting for lesion type (tumour vs. node). This correlation was observed for the SUV(max) measured during RT (r=0.70, p=0.008) but not for the pre-RT data (r=0.19, p=0.35). The weak correlation between FLT and F-miso uptakes only became significant (r=0.66, p=0.002) when the analysis was restricted to the data acquired during RT.

CONCLUSION

Three different PET acquisitions can be performed quasi-simultaneously (4-7 days) before and during radiotherapy in patients with NSCLC. Our results at 46 Gy suggest that a fast decrease in the proliferation of both tumours and nodes exists during radiotherapy with differences in metabolism (borderline significant decrease) and hypoxia (stable).

Multimodality imaging of hypoxia in preclinical settings

Hypoxia has long been recognized to influence solid tumor response to therapy. Increasingly, hypoxia has also been implicated in tumor aggressiveness, including growth, development and metastatic potential. Thus, there is a fundamental, as well as a clinical interest, in assessing in situ tumor hypoxia. This review will examine diverse approaches focusing on the preclinical setting, particularly, in rodents. The strategies are inevitably a compromise in terms of sensitivity, precision, temporal and spatial resolution, as well as cost, feasibility, ease and robustness of implementation. We will review capabilities of multiple modalities and examine what makes them particularly suitable for investigating specific aspects of tumor pathophysiology. Current approaches range from nuclear imaging to magnetic resonance and optical, with varying degrees of invasiveness and ability to examine spatial heterogeneity, as well as dynamic response to interventions. Ideally, measurements would be non-invasive, exploiting endogenous reporters to reveal quantitatively local oxygen tension dynamics. A primary focus of this review is magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) based techniques, such as ¹⁹F MRI oximetry, which reveals not only hypoxia in vivo, but more significantly, spatial distribution of pO₂ quantitatively, with a precision relevant to radiobiology. It should be noted that preclinical methods may have very different criteria for acceptance, as compared with potential investigations for prognostic radiology or predictive biomarkers suitable for use in patients.

Rapid detection of hypoxia-inducible factor-1-active tumours: pretargeted imaging with a protein degrading in a mechanism similar to hypoxia-inducible factor-1alpha

PURPOSE

Hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1) plays an important role in malignant tumour progression. For the imaging of HIF-1-active tumours, we previously developed a protein, POS, which is effectively delivered to and selectively stabilized in HIF-1-active cells, and a radioiodinated biotin derivative, (3-(123)I-iodobenzoyl)norbiotinamide ((123)I-IBB), which can bind to the streptavidin moiety of POS. In this study, we aimed to investigate the feasibility of the pretargeting method using POS and (123)I-IBB for rapid imaging of HIF-1-active tumours.

METHODS

Tumour-implanted mice were pretargeted with POS. After 24 h, (125)I-IBB was administered and subsequently, the biodistribution of radioactivity was investigated at several time points. In vivo planar imaging, comparison between (125)I-IBB accumulation and HIF-1 transcriptional activity, and autoradiography were performed at 6 h after the administration of (125)I-IBB. The same sections that were used in autoradiographic analysis were subjected to HIF-1alpha immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

(125)I-IBB accumulation was observed in tumours of mice pretargeted with POS (1.6%ID/g at 6 h). This result is comparable to the data derived from (125)I-IBB-conjugated POS-treated mice (1.4%ID/g at 24 h). In vivo planar imaging provided clear tumour images. The tumoral accumulation of (125)I-IBB significantly correlated with HIF-1-dependent luciferase bioluminescence (R=0.84, p<0.01). The intratumoral distribution of (125)I-IBB was heterogeneous and was significantly correlated with HIF-1alpha-positive regions (R=0.58, p<0.0001).

CONCLUSION

POS pretargeting with (123)I-IBB is a useful technique in the rapid imaging and detection of HIF-1-active regions in tumours.