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Lue HW, Yang X, Wang R, Qian W, Xu RZH, Lyles R, Osunkoya AO, Zhou BP, Vessella RL, Zayzafoon M, Liu ZR, Zhau HE, Chung LWK. LIV-1 promotes prostate cancer epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition and metastasis through HB-EGF shedding and EGFR-mediated ERK signaling. PLoS One 2011; 6:e27720. [PMID: 22110740 PMCID: PMC3218022 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0027720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2011] [Accepted: 10/23/2011] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
LIV-1, a zinc transporter, is an effector molecule downstream from soluble growth factors. This protein has been shown to promote epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in human pancreatic, breast, and prostate cancer cells. Despite the implication of LIV-1 in cancer growth and metastasis, there has been no study to determine the role of LIV-1 in prostate cancer progression. Moreover, there was no clear delineation of the molecular mechanism underlying LIV-1 function in cancer cells. In the present communication, we found increased LIV-1 expression in benign, PIN, primary and bone metastatic human prostate cancer. We characterized the mechanism by which LIV-1 drives human prostate cancer EMT in an androgen-refractory prostate cancer cells (ARCaP) prostate cancer bone metastasis model. LIV-1, when overexpressed in ARCaPE (derivative cells of ARCaP with epithelial phenotype) cells, promoted EMT irreversibly. LIV-1 overexpressed ARCaPE cells had elevated levels of HB-EGF and matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) 2 and MMP 9 proteolytic enzyme activities, without affecting intracellular zinc concentration. The activation of MMPs resulted in the shedding of heparin binding-epidermal growth factor (HB-EGF) from ARCaPE cells that elicited constitutive epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) phosphorylation and its downstream extracellular signal regulated kinase (ERK) signaling. These results suggest that LIV-1 is involved in prostate cancer progression as an intracellular target of growth factor receptor signaling which promoted EMT and cancer metastasis. LIV-1 could be an attractive therapeutic target for the eradication of pre-existing human prostate cancer and bone and soft tissue metastases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui-Wen Lue
- Department of Biology, Georgia State University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Xiaojian Yang
- Department of Medicine, Samuel Oschin Comprehensive Cancer Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- Department of Urology, Xijing Hospital, The Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Ruoxiang Wang
- Department of Medicine, Samuel Oschin Comprehensive Cancer Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Weiping Qian
- Department of Urology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Roy Z. H. Xu
- Department of Biostatistics, Emory University School of Public Health, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Robert Lyles
- Department of Biostatistics, Emory University School of Public Health, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Adeboye O. Osunkoya
- Department of Pathology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Binhua P. Zhou
- The Sealy Center for Cancer Cell Biology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Robert L. Vessella
- Department of Urology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Majd Zayzafoon
- Department of Pathology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States of America
| | - Zhi-Ren Liu
- Department of Biology, Georgia State University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Haiyen E. Zhau
- Department of Medicine, Samuel Oschin Comprehensive Cancer Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- * E-mail: (LWKC); (HEZ)
| | - Leland W. K. Chung
- Department of Medicine, Samuel Oschin Comprehensive Cancer Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- * E-mail: (LWKC); (HEZ)
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102
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Dougall WC. Molecular pathways: osteoclast-dependent and osteoclast-independent roles of the RANKL/RANK/OPG pathway in tumorigenesis and metastasis. Clin Cancer Res 2011; 18:326-35. [PMID: 22031096 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-10-2507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 159] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Receptor activator of nuclear factor-kappa B ligand (RANKL) is a TNF ligand superfamily member that is essential for the formation, activation, and function of osteoclasts. RANKL functions via its cognate receptor RANK, and it is inhibited by the soluble decoy receptor osteoprotegerin (OPG). In skeletal metastases, the ratio of RANKL to OPG is upregulated, which leads to increased osteoclast-mediated bone destruction. These changes in the bone microenvironment not only compromise the structural integrity of bone, leading to severe clinical morbidities, but have also been implicated in establishment of de novo bone metastasis and the progression of existing skeletal tumors. Evaluation of RANKL inhibitors, including the fully human anti-RANKL antibody denosumab, in patients with cancer has shown reductions in tumor-induced bone resorption activity and successful management of skeletal complications of bone metastases. RANKL also functions as a major paracrine effector of the mitogenic action of progesterone in mouse mammary epithelium, and it has a role in ovarian hormone-dependent expansion and regenerative potential of mammary stem cells. RANKL inhibition attenuates mammary tumorigenesis and pulmonary metastases in mouse models. These data suggest that the contribution of progesterone to increased mammary cancer incidence is mediated, at least in part, by RANKL-dependent changes in the mammary epithelium; RANKL also directly promotes distant metastases. In summary, the antitumor and antimetastatic effects of RANKL inhibition can occur by at least 2 distinct mechanisms, one in the bone via osteoclast-dependent effects, and the second via direct effects on the tumor cells of various origins and/or mammary epithelium.
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Affiliation(s)
- William C Dougall
- Department of Hematology and Oncology Research, Amgen Inc., Seattle, WA 98119, USA.
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103
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Grabowska MM, Sandhu B, Day ML. EGF promotes the shedding of soluble E-cadherin in an ADAM10-dependent manner in prostate epithelial cells. Cell Signal 2011; 24:532-538. [PMID: 22024284 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellsig.2011.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2011] [Revised: 09/30/2011] [Accepted: 10/10/2011] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
During the progression of prostate cancer, the epithelial adhesion molecule E-cadherin is cleaved from the cell surface by ADAM15 proteolytic processing, generating an extracellular 80kDa fragment referred to as soluble E-cadherin (sE-cad). Contrary to observations in cancer, the generation of sE-cad appears to correlate with ADAM10 activity in benign prostatic epithelium. The ADAM10-specific inhibitor INCB8765 and the ADAM10 prodomain inhibit the generation of sE-cad, as well as downstream signaling and cell proliferation. Addition of EGF or amphiregulin (AREG) to these untransformed cell lines increases the amount of sE-cad shed into the conditioned media, as well as sE-cad bound to EGFR. EGF-associated shedding appears to be mediated by ADAM10 as shRNA knockdown of ADAM10 results in reduced shedding of sE-cad. To examine the physiologic role of sE-cad on benign prostatic epithelium, we treated BPH-1 and large T immortalized prostate epithelial cells (PrEC) with an sE-cad chimera comprised of the human Fc domain of IgG(1), fused to the extracellular domains of E-cadherin (Fc-Ecad). The treatment of untransformed prostate epithelial cells with Fc-Ecad resulted in phosphorylation of EGFR and downstream signaling through ERK and increased cell proliferation. Pre-treating BPH-1 and PrEC cells with cetuximab, a therapeutic monoclonal antibody against EGFR, decreased the ability of Fc-Ecad to induce EGFR phosphorylation, downstream signaling, and proliferation. These data suggest that ADAM10-generated sE-cad may have a role in EGFR signaling independent of traditional EGFR ligands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena M Grabowska
- Department of Urology, University of Michigan, 6131 Cancer Center, 1500 E. Medical Center Drive, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA; Program in Cell and Molecular Biology, 6131 Cancer Center, 1500 E. Medical Center Drive, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Brindar Sandhu
- Department of Urology, University of Michigan, 6131 Cancer Center, 1500 E. Medical Center Drive, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Mark L Day
- Department of Urology, University of Michigan, 6131 Cancer Center, 1500 E. Medical Center Drive, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA; Program in Cell and Molecular Biology, 6131 Cancer Center, 1500 E. Medical Center Drive, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
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104
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Nam H, Knutson MD. Effect of dietary iron deficiency and overload on the expression of ZIP metal-ion transporters in rat liver. Biometals 2011; 25:115-24. [PMID: 21826460 DOI: 10.1007/s10534-011-9487-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2011] [Accepted: 07/31/2011] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
The mammalian ZIP (Zrt-, Irt-like Protein) family of transmembrane transport proteins consists of 14 members that share considerable homology. ZIP proteins have been shown to mediate the cellular uptake of the essential trace elements zinc, iron, and manganese. The aim of the present study was to determine the effect of dietary iron deficiency and overload on the expression of all 14 ZIP transporters in the liver, the main site of iron storage. Weanling male rats (n = 6/group) were fed iron-deficient (FeD), iron-adequate (FeA), or iron-overloaded (FeO) diets in two independent feeding studies. In study 1, diets were based on the TestDiet 5755 formulation and contained iron at 9 ppm (FeD), 215 ppm (FeA), and 27,974 ppm (3% FeO). In study 2, diets were based on the AIN-93G formulation and contained iron at 9 ppm Fe (FeD), 50 ppm Fe (FeA), or 18916 ppm (2% FeO). After 3 weeks, the FeD diets depleted liver non-heme iron stores and induced anemia, whereas FeO diets resulted in hepatic iron overload. Quantitative RT-PCR revealed that ZIP5 mRNA levels were 3- and 8-fold higher in 2% FeO and 3% FeO livers, respectively, compared with FeA controls. In both studies, a consistent downregulation of ZIP6, ZIP7, and ZIP10 was also observed in FeO liver relative to FeA controls. Studies in H4IIE hepatoma cells further documented that iron loading affects the expression of these ZIP transporters. Overall, our data suggest that ZIP5, ZIP6, ZIP7, and ZIP10 are regulated by iron, indicating that they may play a role in hepatic iron/metal homeostasis during iron deficiency and overload.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyeyoung Nam
- Food Science and Human Nutrition Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
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105
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Dunning NL, Laversin SA, Miles AK, Rees RC. Immunotherapy of prostate cancer: should we be targeting stem cells and EMT? Cancer Immunol Immunother 2011; 60:1181-93. [PMID: 21688178 PMCID: PMC11029142 DOI: 10.1007/s00262-011-1065-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2011] [Accepted: 06/07/2011] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Cancer stem cells have been implicated in a number of solid malignancies including prostate cancer. In the case of localised prostate cancer, patients are often treated with surgery (radical prostatectomy) and/or radiotherapy. However, disease recurrence is an issue in about 30% of patients, who will then go on to receive hormone ablation therapy. Hormone ablation therapy is often palliative in a vast proportion of individuals, and for hormone-refractory patients, there are several immunotherapies targeting a number of prostate tumour antigens which are currently in development. However, clinical responses in this setting are inconsistent, and it is believed that the failure to achieve full and permanent tumour eradication is due to a small, resistant population of cells known as 'cancer stem cells' (CSCs). The stochastic and clonal evolution models are among several models used to describe cancer development. The general consensus is that cancer may arise in any cell as a result of genetic mutations in oncogenes and tumour suppressor genes, which consequently result in uncontrolled cell growth. The cancer stem cell theory, however, challenges previous opinion and proposes that like normal tissues, tumours are hierarchical and only the rare subpopulation of cells at the top of the hierarchy possess the biological properties required to initiate tumourigenesis. Furthermore, where most cancer models infer that every cell within a tumour is equally malignant, i.e. equally capable of reconstituting new tumours, the cancer stem cell theory suggests that only the rare cancer stem cell component possess tumour-initiating capabilities. Hence, according to this model, cancer stem cells are implicated in both tumour initiation and progression. In recent years, the role of epithelial--mesenchymal transition (EMT) in the advancement of prostate cancer has become apparent. Therefore, CSCs and EMT are both likely to play critical roles in prostate cancer tumourigenesis. This review summarises the current immunotherapeutic strategies targeting prostate tumour antigens taking into account the need to consider treatments that target cancer stem cells and cells involved in epithelial--mesenchymal transition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naomi L. Dunning
- The John van Geest Cancer Research Centre, Nottingham Trent University, School of Science and Technology, Clifton Campus, Nottingham, NG11 8NS UK
| | - Stéphanie A. Laversin
- The John van Geest Cancer Research Centre, Nottingham Trent University, School of Science and Technology, Clifton Campus, Nottingham, NG11 8NS UK
| | - Amanda K. Miles
- The John van Geest Cancer Research Centre, Nottingham Trent University, School of Science and Technology, Clifton Campus, Nottingham, NG11 8NS UK
| | - Robert C. Rees
- The John van Geest Cancer Research Centre, Nottingham Trent University, School of Science and Technology, Clifton Campus, Nottingham, NG11 8NS UK
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106
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Kobayashi Y, Shimizu T, Naoe H, Ueki A, Ishizawa J, Chiyoda T, Onishi N, Sugihara E, Nagano O, Banno K, Kuninaka S, Aoki D, Saya H. Establishment of a choriocarcinoma model from immortalized normal extravillous trophoblast cells transduced with HRASV12. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2011; 179:1471-82. [PMID: 21787741 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2011.05.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2010] [Revised: 05/12/2011] [Accepted: 05/23/2011] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Gestational choriocarcinoma is a malignant trophoblastic tumor. The development of novel molecular-targeted therapies is needed to reduce the toxicity of current multiagent chemotherapy and to treat successfully the chemoresistant cases. The molecular mechanisms underlying choriocarcinoma tumorigenesis remain uncharacterized, however, and appropriate choriocarcinoma animal models have not yet been developed. In this study, we established a choriocarcinoma model by inoculating mice with induced-choriocarcinoma cell-1 (iC³-1) cells, generated from HTR8/SVneo human trophoblastic cells retrovirally transduced with activated H-RAS (HRASV12). The iC³-1 cells exhibited constitutive activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) pathways and developed into lethal tumors in all inoculated mice. Histopathological analysis revealed that the tumors consisted of two distinct types of cells, reminiscent of syncytiotrophoblasts and cytotrophoblasts, as seen in the human choriocarcinoma. The tumors expressed HLA-G and cytokeratin (trophoblast markers) and hCG (a choriocarcinoma marker). Comparative analysis of gene expression profiles between iC³-1 cells and parental HTR8/SVneo cells revealed that iC³-1 cells expressed matrix metalloproteinases, epithelial-mesenchymal transition-related genes, and SOX3 at higher levels than parental trophoblastic cells. Administration of SOX3-specific short-hairpin RNA decreased SOX3 expression and attenuated the tumorigenic activity of iC³-1 cells, suggesting that SOX3 overexpression might be critically involved in the pathogenesis of choriocarcinoma. Our murine model represents a potent new tool for studying the pathogenesis and treatment of choriocarcinoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yusuke Kobayashi
- Division of Gene Regulation, Institute for Advanced Medical Research, School of Medicine, Keio University and the Core Research for Evolutional Science and Technology (CREST), Japan Science and Technology Agency, Tokyo, Japan
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107
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TMPRSS2/ERG promotes epithelial to mesenchymal transition through the ZEB1/ZEB2 axis in a prostate cancer model. PLoS One 2011; 6:e21650. [PMID: 21747944 PMCID: PMC3128608 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0021650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2011] [Accepted: 06/04/2011] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Prostate cancer is the most common non-dermatologic malignancy in men in the Western world. Recently, a frequent chromosomal aberration fusing androgen regulated TMPRSS2 promoter and the ERG gene (TMPRSS2/ERG) was discovered in prostate cancer. Several studies demonstrated cooperation between TMPRSS2/ERG and other defective pathways in cancer progression. However, the unveiling of more specific pathways in which TMPRSS2/ERG takes part, requires further investigation. Using immortalized prostate epithelial cells we were able to show that TMPRSS2/ERG over-expressing cells undergo an Epithelial to Mesenchymal Transition (EMT), manifested by acquisition of mesenchymal morphology and markers as well as migration and invasion capabilities. These findings were corroborated in vivo, where the control cells gave rise to discrete nodules while the TMPRSS2/ERG-expressing cells formed malignant tumors, which expressed EMT markers. To further investigate the general transcription scheme induced by TMPRSS2/ERG, cells were subjected to a microarray analysis that revealed a distinct EMT expression program, including up-regulation of the EMT facilitators, ZEB1 and ZEB2, and down-regulation of the epithelial marker CDH1(E-Cadherin). A chromatin immunoprecipitation assay revealed direct binding of TMPRSS2/ERG to the promoter of ZEB1 but not ZEB2. However, TMPRSS2/ERG was able to bind the promoters of the ZEB2 modulators, IL1R2 and SPINT1. This set of experiments further illuminates the mechanism by which the TMPRSS2/ERG fusion affects prostate cancer progression and might assist in targeting TMPRSS2/ERG and its downstream targets in future drug design efforts.
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108
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Cooperation between Stat3 and Akt signaling leads to prostate tumor development in transgenic mice. Neoplasia 2011; 13:254-65. [PMID: 21390188 DOI: 10.1593/neo.101388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2010] [Revised: 11/24/2010] [Accepted: 11/29/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
In this report, we describe the development of a transgenic mouse in which a rat probasin promoter (ARR(2)Pb) was used to direct prostate specific expression of a constitutively active form of signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (i.e., Stat3C). ARR(2)Pb.Stat3C mice exhibited hyperplasia and prostate intraepithelial neoplasia (PIN) lesions in both ventral and dorsolateral prostate lobes at 6 and 12 months; however, no adenocarcinomas were detected. The effect of combined loss of PTEN was examined by crossing ARR(2)Pb.Stat3C mice with PTEN(+/-) null mice. PTEN(+/-) null mice on an ICR genetic background developed only hyperplasia and PIN at 6 and 12 months, respectively. ARR(2)Pb.Stat3C x PTEN(+/-) mice exhibited a more severe prostate phenotype compared with ARR(2)Pb.Stat3C and PTEN(+/-) mice. ARR(2)Pb.Stat3C x PTEN(+/-) mice developed adenocarcinomas in the ventral prostate as early as 6 months (22% incidence) that reached an incidence of 61% by 12 months. Further evaluations indicated that phospho-Stat3, phospho-Akt, phospho-nuclear factor κB, cyclin D1, and Ki67 were upregulated in adenocarcinomas from ARR(2)Pb.Stat3C x PTEN(+/-) mice. In addition, membrane staining for β-catenin and E-cadherin was reduced. The changes in Stat3 and nuclear factor κB phosphorylation correlated most closely with tumor progression. Collectively, these data provide evidence that Stat3 and Akt signaling cooperate in prostate cancer development and progression and that ARR(2)Pb.Stat3C x PTEN(+/-) mice represent a novel mouse model of prostate cancer to study these interactions.
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109
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Abstract
The lethal consequences of prostate cancer are related to its metastasis to other organ sites. Epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) has received considerable attention as a conceptual paradigm to explain invasive and metastatic behavior during cancer progression. EMT is a normal physiologic process by which cells of epithelial origin convert into cells bearing mesenchymal characteristics. It has been proposed that EMT is co-opted by cancer cells during their metastatic dissemination from a primary organ to secondary sites, but the extent to which this recapitulates physiologic EMT remains uncertain. However, there is ample evidence that EMT-like states occur in, and may contribute to, prostate cancer progression and metastasis, and so has become a very active area of research. Here we review this evidence and explore recent studies that have aimed to better define the role and mechanisms of EMT in prostate cancer. While definitive evidence of something akin to physiologic EMT is still lacking in human prostate cancer, this area of research has nonetheless provided new avenues of investigation into the longstanding puzzles of metastasis, therapeutic resistance, and prognostic biomarkers.
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110
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Armstrong AJ, Marengo MS, Oltean S, Kemeny G, Bitting RL, Turnbull JD, Herold CI, Marcom PK, George DJ, Garcia-Blanco MA. Circulating tumor cells from patients with advanced prostate and breast cancer display both epithelial and mesenchymal markers. Mol Cancer Res 2011; 9:997-1007. [PMID: 21665936 DOI: 10.1158/1541-7786.mcr-10-0490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 493] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
During cancer progression, malignant cells undergo epithelial-mesenchymal transitions (EMT) and mesenchymal-epithelial transitions (MET) as part of a broad invasion and metastasis program. We previously observed MET events among lung metastases in a preclinical model of prostate adenocarcinoma that suggested a relationship between epithelial plasticity and metastatic spread. We thus sought to translate these findings into clinical evidence by examining the existence of EMT in circulating tumor cells (CTC) from patients with progressive metastatic solid tumors, with a focus on men with castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) and women with metastatic breast cancer. We showed that the majority (> 80%) of these CTCs in patients with metastatic CRPC coexpress epithelial proteins such as epithelial cell adhesion molecule (EpCAM), cytokeratins (CK), and E-cadherin, with mesenchymal proteins including vimentin, N-cadherin and O-cadherin, and the stem cell marker CD133. Equally, we found that more than 75% of CTCs from women with metastatic breast cancer coexpress CK, vimentin, and N-cadherin. The existence and high frequency of these CTCs coexpressing epithelial, mesenchymal, and stem cell markers in patients with progressive metastases has important implications for the application and interpretation of approved methods to detect CTCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J Armstrong
- Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina 27710, USA.
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111
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Prolonged mammosphere culture of MCF-7 cells induces an EMT and repression of the estrogen receptor by microRNAs. Breast Cancer Res Treat 2011; 132:75-85. [PMID: 21553120 DOI: 10.1007/s10549-011-1534-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2011] [Accepted: 04/16/2011] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Mammosphere culture has been used widely for the enrichment of mammary epithelial stem cells and breast cancer stem cells (CSCs). Epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) also induces stem cell features in normal and transformed mammary cells. We examined whether mammosphere culture conditions per se induced EMT in the epithelial MCF-7 breast cancer cell line. MCF-7 cells were cultured as mammospheres for 5 weeks, with dispersal and reseeding at the end of each week. This mammosphere culture induced a complete EMT by 3 weeks. Return of the cells to standard adherent culture conditions in serum-supplemented media generated a cell population (called MCF-7(M) cells), which displays a stable mesenchymal and CSC-like CD(44+)/CD(24-/low) phenotype. EMT was accompanied by a stable, marked increase in EMT-associated transcription factors and mesenchymal markers, and a decrease in epithelial markers and estrogen receptor α (ERα). MCF-7(M) cells showed increased motility, proliferation and chemoresistance in vitro, and produced larger tumors in immunodeficient mice with or without estrogen supplementation. MicroRNA analysis showed suppression of miR-200c, miR-203, and miR-205; and increases in miR-222 and miR-221. Antisense hairpin RNA inhibitor targeting miR-221 resulted in re-expression of ERα in MCF-7(M) cells. This study provides the first example of mammosphere culture conditions inducing EMT and of EMT regulating microRNAs that target ERα.
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112
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Josson S, Anderson CS, Sung SY, Johnstone PAS, Kubo H, Hsieh CL, Arnold R, Gururajan M, Yates C, Chung LWK. Inhibition of ADAM9 expression induces epithelial phenotypic alterations and sensitizes human prostate cancer cells to radiation and chemotherapy. Prostate 2011; 71:232-40. [PMID: 20672324 PMCID: PMC3174735 DOI: 10.1002/pros.21237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Recent studies demonstrated the importance of ADAM9 in prostate cancer relapse upon therapy. In this study, we determined the role of ADAM9 in the therapeutic resistance to radiation and chemotherapy. MATERIALS AND METHODS ADAM9 was either transiently or stably knocked down in C4-2 prostate cancer cells. The sensitivity of ADAM9 knockdown cells toward radiation and chemotherapeutic agents were determined. Additionally, the effects of ADAM9 knockdown on prostate cancer cell morphology, biochemical and functional alterations were accessed. RESULTS Both transient and stable knockdown of ADAM9 resulted in increased apoptosis and increased sensitivity to radiation. ADAM9 knockdown also increased prostate cancer sensitivity to several chemotherapeutic drugs. ADAM9 knockdown resulted in increased E-cadherin and altered integrin expression and underwent phenotypic epithelial transition. These were reflected by the morphological, biochemical, and functional alterations in the ADAM9 knockdown cells. CONCLUSIONS ADAM9 plays a crucial role in prostate cancer progression and therapeutic resistance in part by altering E-cadherin and integrin expression. ADAM9 is an important target for the consideration of treating prostate cancer patients who developed therapeutic resistance and disease relapse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sajni Josson
- Uro-Oncology Research Program, Department of Medicine, Samuel Oschin Comprehensive Cancer Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California 90048, USA.
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113
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Fernández-Martínez AB, Bajo AM, Isabel Arenas M, Sánchez-Chapado M, Prieto JC, Carmena MJ. Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) induces malignant transformation of the human prostate epithelial cell line RWPE-1. Cancer Lett 2010; 299:11-21. [DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2010.07.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2010] [Revised: 07/20/2010] [Accepted: 07/22/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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114
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Tumor-Stromal Interactions Influence Radiation Sensitivity in Epithelial- versus Mesenchymal-Like Prostate Cancer Cells. JOURNAL OF ONCOLOGY 2010; 2010. [PMID: 20798867 PMCID: PMC2926670 DOI: 10.1155/2010/232831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2010] [Revised: 05/12/2010] [Accepted: 05/12/2010] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
HS-27a human bone stromal cells, in 2D or 3D coultures, induced cellular plasticity in human prostate cancer ARCaP(E) and ARCaP(M) cells in an EMT model. Cocultured ARCaP(E) or ARCaP(M) cells with HS-27a, developed increased colony forming capacity and growth advantage, with ARCaP(E) exhibiting the most significant increases in presence of bone or prostate stroma cells. Prostate (Pt-N or Pt-C) or bone (HS-27a) stromal cells induced significant resistance to radiation treatment in ARCaP(E) cells compared to ARCaP(M) cells. However pretreatment with anti-E-cadherin antibody (SHEP8-7) or anti-alpha v integrin blocking antibody (CNT095) significantly decreased stromal cell-induced radiation resistance in both ARCaP(E)- and ARCaP(M)-cocultured cells. Taken together the data suggest that mesenchymal-like cancer cells reverting to epithelial-like cells in the bone microenvironment through interaction with bone marrow stromal cells and reexpress E-cadherin. These cell adhesion molecules such as E-cadherin and integrin alpha v in cancer cells induce cell survival signals and mediate resistance to cancer treatments such as radiation.
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115
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He H, Davidson AJ, Wu D, Marshall FF, Chung LWK, Zhau HE, He D, Wang R. Phorbol ester phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate induces epithelial to mesenchymal transition in human prostate cancer ARCaPE cells. Prostate 2010; 70:1119-26. [PMID: 20333698 PMCID: PMC3180889 DOI: 10.1002/pros.21146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND We have reported that human prostate cancer ARCaP(E) cells undertake epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) when stimulated by certain soluble factors, and that EMT is regulated by surface receptor-elicited signaling pathways through protein phosphorylation. It is known that phorbol ester phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate (PMA), a potent antagonist to both conventional and novel protein kinase C (PKC) isoenzymes, induces cancer cell scattering. METHODS To assess the effect of PMA on EMT, ARCaP(E) cells were treated with PMA and were assayed for EMT-related morphologic and behavioral changes. Specific inhibitors were used to investigate the PMA-induced EMT. RESULTS PMA at 100 nM induced EMT in a time-dependent manner, resulting in a complete change from epithelial to mesenchymal stromal morphology. Concurrently, PMA inhibited expression of epithelial marker E-cadherin and increased the level of stromal marker protein vimentin, while the treated cells showed increased migratory and invasive capacities. Using specific inhibitors, we confirmed that the effect of PMA was mediated by PKC, while isoenzymes of the novel PKC subfamily were implicated as the main mediator. Finally, we determined that the EMT was dependent on newly synthesized proteins, because inhibitors for gene transcription and protein translation could both inhibit the initiation of EMT. CONCLUSIONS Although PMA is well known for its effects on cell migration and tumor formation, this work is the first to define PMA as an EMT inducer in prostate cancer cells. Further investigation in this experimental model may reveal important regulatory mechanisms and additional molecular changes underlying EMT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui He
- Department of Urology, the First Affiliated Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China 710061
| | - Alec J. Davidson
- Neuroscience Institute, Morehouse School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30310
| | - Daqing Wu
- Molecular Urology and Therapeutics, Department of Urology and Winship Cancer Institute, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322
| | - Fray F. Marshall
- Molecular Urology and Therapeutics, Department of Urology and Winship Cancer Institute, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322
| | - Leland W. K. Chung
- Molecular Urology and Therapeutics, Department of Urology and Winship Cancer Institute, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322
| | - Haiyen E. Zhau
- Molecular Urology and Therapeutics, Department of Urology and Winship Cancer Institute, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322
| | - Dalin He
- Department of Urology, the First Affiliated Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China 710061
| | - Ruoxiang Wang
- Molecular Urology and Therapeutics, Department of Urology and Winship Cancer Institute, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322
- Corresponding to: Dr. Ruoxiang Wang Department of Urology Emory University School of Medicine 1365B Clifton Road, NE, Suite B5103 Atlanta, GA 30322 Tel. (404) 778-5116 FAX. (404) 778-3965
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He H, Yang X, Davidson AJ, Wu D, Marshall FF, Chung LWK, Zhau HE, Wang R. Progressive epithelial to mesenchymal transitions in ARCaP E prostate cancer cells during xenograft tumor formation and metastasis. Prostate 2010; 70:518-28. [PMID: 19918799 PMCID: PMC3180894 DOI: 10.1002/pros.21086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The mechanism of epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) could be adopted by tumor cells for migration and invasion. We have reported that ARCaP(E) human prostate cancer cells undergo EMT-like changes during xenograft growth in athymic mice. METHODS In this report, we assessed the extent of EMT by tracking changes in cloned ARCaP(E) cells expressing red fluorescence protein during successive orthotopic prostate tumor formation. Cancer cells with stromal-like morphology were isolated and examined for EMT-like changes. RESULTS EMT-like morphologic and expression changes were detected after one round of in vivo tumor formation. Importantly, when recovered tumor cells were used in second round xenograft tumor formation, a large fraction of ARCaP(E) cells showed drastic EMT-like changes, with markedly enlarged cell size and divergent cell shapes similar to those of mesenchymal stromal cells. The morphologic change was accompanied by increased growth and metastasis, as tumor incidence increased while red fluorescent tumor cells could be detected from circulating blood, bone marrow, peritoneal ascites, and lung of the tumor-bearing mice. Recovered clones from these samples had lost epithelial markers but many showed activated stromal marker vimentin expression. The EMT appeared permanent since the newly acquired morphology was sustained after continuous passages. CONCLUSIONS Results from this study demonstrate that through interaction with the host tumor microenvironment, cancer cells acquire cellular plasticity. During xenograft tumor formation and metastasis, a single clone of cancer cells could yield a heterogeneous population, with a substantial number of tumor cells adopting mesenchymal stroma-like phenotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui He
- Department of Urology, the First Affiliated Hospital, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China 710061
- Department of Urology and Winship Cancer Institute, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322
| | - Xiaojian Yang
- Department of Urology and Winship Cancer Institute, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322
| | - Alec J. Davidson
- Neuroscience Institute, Morehouse School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30310
| | - Daqing Wu
- Department of Urology and Winship Cancer Institute, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322
| | - Fray F. Marshall
- Department of Urology and Winship Cancer Institute, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322
| | - Leland W. K. Chung
- Department of Urology and Winship Cancer Institute, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322
| | - Haiyen E. Zhau
- Department of Urology and Winship Cancer Institute, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322
| | - Ruoxiang Wang
- Department of Urology and Winship Cancer Institute, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322
- Corresponding to: Dr. Ruoxiang Wang, Department of Urology, Emory University School of Medicine, 1365B Clifton Road, NE, Suite B5103, Atlanta, GA 30322, Tel. (404) 778-5116, FAX. (404) 778-3965,
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Saad F, Lipton A. SRC kinase inhibition: targeting bone metastases and tumor growth in prostate and breast cancer. Cancer Treat Rev 2009; 36:177-84. [PMID: 20015594 DOI: 10.1016/j.ctrv.2009.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2009] [Revised: 11/12/2009] [Accepted: 11/16/2009] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Prostate and breast cancer cells preferentially metastasize to bone, whereupon a complex interaction between metastatic tumor cells, osteoclasts, and osteoblasts results in the development of bone lesions that cause significant pain and patient morbidity. For patients with bone lesions, the goals of treatment are to decrease tumor growth, prevent further metastases, and inhibit tumor-associated bone pathology. Preclinical data suggest that SRC, a nonreceptor tyrosine kinase, is an important signaling molecule during the processes of osteoclast-mediated bone resorption, tumor growth, and metastasis, and that SRC has a role in hormone receptor signaling and resistance. As such, SRC represents a logical target for the treatment of advanced metastatic prostate or breast cancer. SRC-targeting agents, including dasatinib, saracatinib, and bosutinib, are currently in clinical development for patients with solid tumors. Preliminary data from phase 1/2 trials, including tumor responses and bone-specific activity in patients with prostate or breast cancer, demonstrate that SRC inhibitors have potential in the clinical setting. Data arising from ongoing and future clinical trials will confirm whether SRC inhibitors provide clinical benefits for patients with advanced disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fred Saad
- University of Montreal, CHU Montreal, 1560 Sherbrooke East, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
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119
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Tumor-stroma co-evolution in prostate cancer progression and metastasis. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2009; 21:26-32. [PMID: 19948237 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2009.11.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2009] [Revised: 11/16/2009] [Accepted: 11/20/2009] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Cancer development is complex and involves several layers of interactions and pleotropic signaling mechanisms leading to progression. Cancer cells associate with resident stromal fibroblasts, smooth muscle cells, macrophages, endothelium, neurons and migrating cells at metastatic sites and phenotypically and genotypically activate them. These become an integral part of the cancer cell community through activated cell signaling mechanisms. During this process, the cancer cells and cells in the cancer microenvironment "co-evolve" in part due to oxidative stress, and acquire the ability to mimic other cell types (which can be termed osteomimicry, vasculomimicry, neuromimicry and stem cell mimicry), and undergo transition from epithelium to mesenchyme with definitive morphologic and behavioral modifications. In our laboratory, we demonstrated that prostate cancer cells co-evolve in their genotypic and phenotypic characters with stroma and acquire osteomimetic properties allowing them to proliferate and survive in the skeleton as bone metastasis. Several signaling interactions in the bone microenvironment, mediated by reactive oxygen species, soluble and membrane bound factors, such as superoxide, beta2-microglobulin and RANKL have been described. Targeting the signaling pathways in the cancer-associated stromal microenvironment in combination with known conventional therapeutic modalities could have a synergistic effect on cancer treatment. Since cancer cells are constantly interacting and acquiring adaptive and survival changes primarily directed by their microenvironment, it is imperative to delineate these interactions and co-target both cancer and stroma to improve the treatment and overall survival of cancer patients.
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Zhu ML, Kyprianou N. Role of androgens and the androgen receptor in epithelial-mesenchymal transition and invasion of prostate cancer cells. FASEB J 2009; 24:769-77. [PMID: 19901020 DOI: 10.1096/fj.09-136994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 170] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Androgens are functionally required for the normal growth of the prostate gland and in prostate tumor development and progression. Epithelial-mesenchymal-transition (EMT) is an important process during normal development and in cancer cell metastasis induced by factors within the microenvironment, such as transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta). This study examined the ability of androgens to influence EMT of prostate cancer epithelial cells. The EMT pattern was evaluated on the basis of expression of the epithelial markers E-cadherin/beta-catenin, and the mesenchymal markers N-cadherin, as well as cytoskeleton reorganization in response to 5alpha-dihydrotestosterone (DHT; 1 nM) and/or TGF-beta (5 ng/ml). Overexpressing and silencing approaches to regulate androgen receptor (AR) expression were conducted to determine the involvement of AR in EMT in the presence or absence of an AR antagonist. Our results demonstrate that androgens induce the EMT pattern in prostate tumor epithelial cell with Snail activation and lead to significant changes in prostate cancer cell migration and invasion potential. Expression levels of AR inversely correlated with androgen-mediated EMT in prostate tumor epithelial cells, pointing to a low AR content required for the EMT phenotype. These findings indicate the ability of androgens to induce EMT by potentially bypassing the functional involvement of TGF-beta, thus contributing to metastatic behavior of prostate cancer cells.-Zhum, M.-L., Kyprianou, N. Role of androgens and the androgen receptor in epithelial-mesenchymal transition and invasion of prostate cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meng-Lei Zhu
- Combs Res. Bldg., Rm. 306, University of Kentucky Medical Center, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
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Beta2-microglobulin: emerging as a promising cancer therapeutic target. Drug Discov Today 2008; 14:25-30. [PMID: 19056512 DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2008.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2008] [Revised: 10/14/2008] [Accepted: 11/04/2008] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Beta2-microglobulin, a MHC class I subunit, is found to act similarly to a prototypical oncogenic factor capable of stimulating growth and progression of various cancers and plays a key regulatory role in stimulating cancer bone metastasis. Free beta2M in serum or urine has been regarded as an independent biomarker in several cancers. Specific antibodies to beta2M have remarkable tumoricidal activity for both solid tumors and blood malignancies and are shown to be selective to tumor cells, but caused no toxicity in normal cells. These surprising data strongly suggest that beta2M is a promising new therapeutic target for human cancers.
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Odero-Marah VA, Wang R, Chu G, Zayzafoon M, Xu J, Shi C, Marshall FF, Zhau HE, Chung LWK. Receptor activator of NF-κB Ligand (RANKL) expression is associated with epithelial to mesenchymal transition in human prostate cancer cells. Cell Res 2008; 18:858-70. [DOI: 10.1038/cr.2008.84] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
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