Nanomedicines: current status and future perspectives in aspect of drug delivery and pharmacokinetics

Nanoparticles in nanomedicine: a comprehensive updated review on current status, challenges and emerging opportunities

The fast progress in nanomedicine and nanoparticles (NP) materials presents unconventional solutions which are expected to revolutionise health care with great potentials including, enhanced efficacy, bioavailability, drug targeting, and safety. This review provides a comprehensive update on widely used organic and inorganic NP with emphasis on the recent development, challenges and future prospective for bio applications where, further investigations into innovative synthesis methodologies, properties and applications of NP would possibly reveal new improved biomedical relevance. NP exhibits exceptional physical and chemical properties due to their high surface area to volume ratio and nanoscale size, which led to breakthroughs in therapeutic, diagnostic and screening techniques repeated line. Finally, an update of FDA-approved NP is explored where innovative design engineering allowed a paradigmatic shift in their market share. This review would serve as a discerning comprehensive source of information for learners who are seeking a cutting-edge review but have been astounded by the size of publications.

The solid progress of nanomedicine

This commentary article conveys the views of the board of the Nanomedicine and Nanoscale Delivery Focus Group of the Controlled Release Society regarding the decision of the United States National Cancer Institute (NCI) in halting funding for the Centers of Cancer Nanotechnology Excellence (CCNEs), and the subsequent editorial articles that broadened this discussion. Graphical abstract.

Disruption of redox homeostasis with synchronized activation of apoptosis highlights the antifilarial efficacy of novel piperine derivatives: An in vitro mechanistic approach

A series of novel piperine derivatives were synthesized with high yield and were evaluated for its antifilarial potential against the bovine filarial parasite Setaria cervi. Among 21 (3a-3u) compounds screened, three of them (3k, 3l, 3s) showed significant potential against all the developmental stages (oocytes, microfilariae and adult) of the filarial worm in time and dose dependent manner. 3l showed the highest efficacy among the selected three compounds. These three compounds were further evaluated for both in vitro and in vivo toxicity analyses which further fortified the benign nature of the selected compounds. The antifilarial activities they exhibited were clearly fuelled through disparity of the internal redox homeostasis as evidenced from the alterations in the enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants level which ultimately shifted towards activation of pro-apoptotic signaling cascade eventually leading to the death of the parasites. The ability of the compound 3l to bind thioredoxin reductase and CED-3 protein are the key findings of this study. The present study supported with several biological experiments is therefore a maiden report on the antifilarial effectiveness of these novel piperine derivatives.

Organoids: A new approach in toxicity testing of nanotherapeutics

Nanotechnology has revolutionized diverse fields, which include agriculture, the consumer market, medicine, and other fields. Widespread use of nanotechnology-based products has led to increased prevalence of these novel formulations in the environment, which has raised concerns regarding their deleterious effects. The application of nanotechnology-based formulations into clinical use is hampered by the lack of the availability of effective in vitro systems, which could accurately assess their in vivo toxic effects. A plethora of studies has shown the hazardous effects of nanoparticle-based formulations in two-dimensional in vitro cell cultures and animal models. These have some associated disadvantages when used for the evaluation of nano-toxicity. Organoid technology fills the space between existing two-dimensional cell line culture and in vivo models. The uniqueness of organoids over other systems for evaluating toxicity caused by nano-drug formulation includes them being a co-culture of diverse cell types, dynamic flow within them that simulates the actual flow of nanoparticles within biological systems, extensive cell-cell, cell-matrix interactions, and a tissue-like morphology. Thus, it mimics the actual tissue microenvironment and, subsequently, provides an opportunity to study drug metabolism and toxico-dynamics of nanotechnology-based novel formulations. The use of organoids in the evaluation of nano-drug toxicity is in its infancy. A limited number of studies conducted so far have shown good predictive value and efficiently significant data correlation with the clinical trials. In this review, we attempt to introduce organoids of the liver, lungs, brain, kidney intestine, and potential applications to evaluate toxicity caused by nanoparticles.

Insights from nanotechnology in COVID-19: prevention, detection, therapy and immunomodulation

The outbreak of SARS-CoV-2 infection has presented the world with an urgent demand for advanced diagnostics and therapeutics to prevent, treat and control the spread of infection. Nanotechnology seems to be highly relevant in this emergency due to the unique physicochemical properties of nanomaterials which offer versatile chemical functionalization to create advanced biomedical tools. Here, nano-intervention is discussed for designing effective strategies in developing advanced personal protective equipment kits, disinfectants, rapid and cost-effective diagnostics and therapeutics against the infection. We have also highlighted the nanoparticle-based vaccination approaches and how nanoparticles can regulate the host immune system against infection. Overall, this review discusses various nanoformulations that have shown clinical relevance or can be explored in the fight against COVID-19.

SPECT imaging and highly efficient therapy of rheumatoid arthritis based on hyperbranched semiconducting polymer nanoparticles

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an inflammatory autoimmune disease. Although significant progress has been made in clinical treatment, joint inflammation may continue or worsen, and may even progress to the end-stage that requires joint replacement. Traditional therapy using methotrexate (MTX) would cause serious off-target systemic toxicities. Therefore, it is crucial to effectively and specifically deliver MTX to targeted inflamed joints to decrease its adverse systemic toxicities and improve its therapeutic index. Herein, we develop multifunctional nanocarriers for diagnostic radioisotope (99mTc) labeling and therapeutic targeted drug (MTX) delivery by using PEGylated hyperbranched semiconducting polymer nanoparticles (HSP-PEG-NPs) as carriers. Upon intravenous administration, the nanoparticles can extravasate through the turbulent blood-joint barrier and access the inflamed joints. In vivo SPECT/CT imaging shows high accumulation in the inflamed joints of mice with RA after intravenous injection of HSP-PEG-NPs with 99mTc labeling (99mTc-HSP-PEG). In vivo therapeutic evaluations suggest that MTX@HSP-PEG-NPs significantly alleviate RA with a high therapeutic index and relatively low adverse systemic toxicities in comparison with free MTX at the same dose. Our study shows that HSP-PEG-NPs could serve as multifunctional vehicles to deliver radioisotopes for in vivo imaging, and MTX for RA treatment, highlighting the innovative development of the nanoparticle-based RA treatment strategy for clinical applications.

Overview of COVID-19 Disease: Virology, Epidemiology, Prevention Diagnosis, Treatment, and Vaccines

Coronaviruses belong to the “Coronaviridae family”, which causes various diseases, from the common cold to SARS and MERS. The coronavirus is naturally prevalent in mammals and birds. So far, six human-transmitted coronaviruses have been discovered. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) was first reported in December 2019 in Wuhan, China. Common symptoms include fever, dry cough, and fatigue, but in acute cases, the disease can lead to severe shortness of breath, hypoxia, and death. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the three main transmission routes, such as droplet and contact routes, airborne transmission and fecal and oral for COVID-19, have been identified. So far, no definitive curative treatment has been discovered for COVID-19, and the available treatments are only to reduce the complications of the disease. According to the World Health Organization, preventive measures at the public health level such as quarantine of the infected person, identification and monitoring of contacts, disinfection of the environment, and personal protective equipment can significantly prevent the outbreak COVID-19. Currently, based on the urgent needs of the community to control this pandemic, the BNT162b2 (Pfizer), mRNA-1273 (Moderna), CoronaVac (Sinovac), Sputnik V (Gamaleya Research Institute, Acellena Contract Drug Research, and Development), BBIBP-CorV (Sinofarm), and AZD1222 (The University of Oxford; AstraZeneca) vaccines have received emergency vaccination licenses from health organizations in vaccine-producing countries. Vasso Apostolopoulos, Majid Hassanzadeganroudsari

Hybrid Drugs-A Strategy for Overcoming Anticancer Drug Resistance?

Despite enormous progress in the treatment of many malignancies, the development of cancer resistance is still an important reason for cancer chemotherapy failure. Increasing knowledge of cancers' molecular complexity and mechanisms of their resistance to anticancer drugs, as well as extensive clinical experience, indicate that an effective fight against cancer requires a multidimensional approach. Multi-target chemotherapy may be achieved using drugs combination, co-delivery of medicines, or designing hybrid drugs. Hybrid drugs simultaneously targeting many points of signaling networks and various structures within a cancer cell have been extensively explored in recent years. The single hybrid agent can modulate multiple targets involved in cancer cell proliferation, possesses a simpler pharmacokinetic profile to reduce the possibility of drug interactions occurrence, and facilitates the process of drug development. Moreover, a single medication is expected to enhance patient compliance due to a less complicated treatment regimen, as well as a diminished number of adverse reactions and toxicity in comparison to a combination of drugs. As a consequence, many efforts have been made to design hybrid molecules of different chemical structures and functions as a means to circumvent drug resistance. The enormous number of studies in this field encouraged us to review the available literature and present selected research results highlighting the possible role of hybrid drugs in overcoming cancer drug resistance.

PEGylated nanoparticle albumin-bound steroidal ginsenoside derivatives ameliorate SARS-CoV-2-mediated hyper-inflammatory responses

The rapid spread of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) on a global scale urges prompt and effective countermeasures. Recently, a study has reported that coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19), the disease caused by SARS-CoV-2 infection, is associated with a decrease in albumin level, an increase in NETosis, blood coagulation, and cytokine level. Here, we present drug-loaded albumin nanoparticles as a therapeutic agent to resolve the clinical outcomes observed in severe SARS-CoV-2 patients. PEGylated nanoparticle albumin-bound (PNAB) was used to promote prolonged bioactivity of steroidal ginsenoside saponins, PNAB-Rg6 and PNAB-Rgx365. Our data indicate that the application of PNAB-steroidal ginsenoside can effectively reduce histone H4 and NETosis-related factors in the plasma, and alleviate SREBP2-mediated systemic inflammation in the PBMCs of SARS-CoV-2 ICU patients. The engineered blood vessel model confirmed that these drugs are effective in suppressing blood clot formation and vascular inflammation. Moreover, the animal model experiment showed that these drugs are effective in promoting the survival rate by alleviating tissue damage and cytokine storm. Altogether, our findings suggest that these PNAB-steroidal ginsenoside drugs have potential applications in the treatment of symptoms associated with severe SARS-CoV-2 patients, such as coagulation and cytokine storm.

Localized therapy using anti-PD-L1 anchored and NIR-responsive hollow gold nanoshell (HGNS) loaded with doxorubicin (DOX) for the treatment of locally advanced melanoma

Drug resistance and inefficient localization of chemotherapeutic agent limit the current treatment strategy in locally advanced melanoma (MEL), accounting to the 10-year survival rate from 24% to 68%. In this study we constructed anti-PD-L1 conjugated and doxorubicin loaded hollow gold nanoshell (T-HGNS-DOX) for targeted and localized chemo-photothermal therapy of MEL by the conjugation of LA-PEG-anti-PD-L1 antibody and short PEG chain on the surface of HGNS-DOX. Near infrared (NIR) as well as pH dependent drug release profile was observed. Significant uptake of DOX following NIR due to high PD-L1 receptors resulted in pronounced anticancer effect of T-HGNS-DOX. Following intratumoral administration, maximum nanoparticles retention with the significant reduction in tumor growth was observed as a result of elevated apoptosis marker (cleaved caspase-3, cleaved PARP) as well as downregulation of proliferative (Ki-67) and angiogenesis marker (CD31). Cumulatively, our system avoids the systemic toxicities of the nanosystem thereby providing maximum chemotherapeutic retention in tumor.

Quantum Dot Nanomedicine Formulations Dramatically Improve Pharmacological Properties and Alter Uptake Pathways of Metformin and Nicotinamide Mononucleotide in Aging Mice

Orally administered Ag₂S quantum dots (QDs) rapidly cross the small intestine and are taken up by the liver. Metformin and nicotinamide mononucleotide (NMN) target metabolic and aging processes within the liver. This study examined the pharmacology and toxicology of QD-based nanomedicines as carriers of metformin and NMN in young and old mice, determining if their therapeutic potency and reduced effects associated with aging could be improved. Pharmacokinetic studies demonstrated that QD-conjugated metformin and NMN have greater bioavailability, with selective accumulation in the liver following oral administration compared to unconjugated formulations. Pharmacodynamic data showed that the QD-conjugated medicines had increased physiological, metabolic, and cellular potency compared to unconjugated formulations (25× metformin; 100× NMN) and highlighted a shift in the peak induction of, and greater metabolic response to, glucose tolerance testing. Two weeks of treatment with low-dose QD-NMN (0.8 mg/kg/day) improved glucose tolerance tests in young (3 months) mice, whereas old (18 and 24 months) mice demonstrated improved fasting and fed insulin levels and insulin resistance. High-dose unconjugated NMN (80 mg/kg/day) demonstrated improvements in young mice but not in old mice. After 100 days of QD (320 μg/kg/day) treatment, there was no evidence of cellular necrosis, fibrosis, inflammation, or accumulation. Ag₂S QD nanomedicines improved the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of metformin and NMN by increasing their therapeutic potency, bypassing classical cellular uptake pathways, and demonstrated efficacy when drug alone was ineffective in aging mice.

Perspectives of nano-carrier drug delivery systems to overcome cancer drug resistance in the clinics

Advanced cancer is still considered an incurable disease because of its metastatic spread to distal organs and progressive gain of chemoresistance. Even though considerable treatment progress and more effective therapies have been achieved over the past years, recurrence in the long-term and undesired side effects are still the main drawbacks of current clinical protocols. Moreover, a majority of chemotherapeutic drugs are highly hydrophobic and need to be diluted in organic solvents, which cause high toxicity, in order to reach effective therapeutic dose. These limitations of conventional cancer therapies prompted the use of nanomedicine, the medical application of nanotechnology, to provide more effective and safer cancer treatment. Potential of nanomedicines to overcome resistance, ameliorate solubility, improve pharmacological profile, and reduce adverse effects of chemotherapeutical drugs is thus highly regarded. Their use in the clinical setting has increased over the last decade. Among the various existing nanosystems, nanoparticles have the ability to transform conventional medicine by reducing the adverse effects and providing a controlled release of therapeutic agents. Also, their small size facilitates the intracellular uptake. Here, we provide a closer review of clinical prospects and mechanisms of action of nanomedicines to overcome drug resistance. The significance of specific targeting towards cancer cells is debated as well.

Surfactants, Nanomedicines and Nanocarriers: A Critical Evaluation on Clinical Trials

Advances, perspectives and innovation in drug delivery have increased in recent years; however, there is limited information available regarding the actual presence of surfactants, nanomedicines and nanocarriers in investigational medicinal products submitted as part of a request for authorization of clinical trials, particularly for those authorized in the European Economic Area. We retrieve, analyze and report data available at the Clinical Trial Office of the Italian Medicines Agency (AIFA), increasing the transparency and availability of relevant information. An analysis of quality documentation submitted along with clinical trials authorized by the AIFA in 2018 was carried out, focusing on the key terms "surfactant", "nanomedicine" and "nanocarrier". Results suggest potential indications and inputs for further reflection and actions for regulators to actively and safely drive innovation from a regulatory perspective and to transpose upcoming evolution of clinical trials within a strong regulatory framework.

Applications of natural product-derived carbon dots in cancer biology

Natural products have contributed conspicuously to the development of innovative nanomedicines. Hence, the interface between nanomaterial science and plant natural products may bestow comprehensive diagnostic and therapeutic strategies for tackling diseases such as cancer and neurological disorders. Natural product-derived carbon dots (NPdCDs) have revealed noteworthy attributes in the fields of cancer theranostics, microbial imaging, drug sensing and drug delivery. As plants consist of a cocktail of bioactive phytomolecules, the NPdCDs can be anticipated to have medicinal properties, biocompatibility, photo-stability and easy functionalization. NPdCDs have wide-ranging applications. The primary objective of this review is to comment on recent developments in the use of NPdCDs, with special reference to their application in cancer biology. The future of the use of NPdCDs has also been considered.

Incorporation of indomethacin into a mesoporous silica nanoparticle enhances the anti-inflammatory effect Indomethacin into a mesoporous silica

PURPOSE

We evaluated the analgesic, anti-inflammatory and toxicological effects of indomethacin incorporated into mesoporous silica nanoparticles (IND+NP).

METHODS

Nociception was evaluated by the formalin assay. The anti-inflammatory potential was assessed by cell migration and paw edema assays, modulation of nitric oxide and cytokines (IL-6, IL-10 and TNF-α) by macrophages production. Toxicity was evaluated in peritoneal macrophages and by the locomotion assay and assessment of gastric injuries, presence of occult blood and hepatic and renal markers.

RESULTS

IND+NP reduced nociception during phases 1 by 53% and 2 by 79% of the formalin assay and the influx of peritoneal cells by 94%, indicating an analgesic and anti-inflammatory effect more efficiently than indomethacin alone. Indomethacin, but not IND+NP, caused macroscopic gastric injuries, the presence of fecal occult blood, and an increase of ALT levels. In the paw edema assay, IND+NP reduced edema by 21%. IND+NP has no effect on the LPS-induced production of nitric oxide, IL-6, IL-10 and TNF-α on no cytotoxic concentrations.

CONCLUSIONS

The incorporation of indomethacin into mesoporous silica nanoparticles effectively increased the activity of the drug observed in the formalin and cell migration assays and prevented the gastric and hepatic damage associated with its use.

Surface Plasmon Resonance as a Characterization Tool for Lipid Nanoparticles Used in Drug Delivery

The development of drug carriers based in lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) aims toward the synthesis of non-toxic multifunctional nanovehicles that can bypass the immune system and allow specific site targeting, controlled release and complete degradation of the carrier components. Among label free techniques, Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) biosensing is a versatile tool to study LNPs in the field of nanotherapeutics research. SPR, widely used for the analysis of molecular interactions, is based on the immobilization of one of the interacting partners to the sensor surface, which can be easily achieved in the case of LNPs by hydrophobic attachment onto commercial lipid- capture sensor chips. In the last years SPR technology has emerged as an interesting strategy for studying molecular aspects of drug delivery that determines the efficacy of the nanotherapeutical such as LNPs' interactions with biological targets, with serum proteins and with tumor extracelullar matrix. Moreover, SPR has contributed to the obtention and characterization of LNPs, gathering information about the interplay between components of the formulations, their response to organic molecules and, more recently, the quantification and molecular characterization of exosomes. By the combination of available sensor platforms, assay quickness and straight forward platform adaptation for new carrier systems, SPR is becoming a high throughput technique for LNPs' characterization and analysis.

Non-Oncologic Applications of Nanomedicine-Based Phototherapy

Phototherapy is widely applied to various human diseases. Nanomedicine-based phototherapy can be classified into photodynamic therapy (PDT) and photothermal therapy (PTT). Activated photosensitizer kills the target cells by generating radicals or reactive oxygen species in PDT while generating heat in PTT. Both PDT and PTT have been employed for treating various diseases, from preclinical to randomized controlled clinical trials. However, there are still hurdles to overcome before entering clinical practice. This review provides an overview of nanomedicine-based phototherapy, especially in non-oncologic diseases. Multiple clinical trials were undertaken to prove the therapeutic efficacy of PDT in dermatologic, ophthalmologic, cardiovascular, and dental diseases. Preclinical studies showed the feasibility of PDT in neurologic, gastrointestinal, respiratory, and musculoskeletal diseases. A few clinical studies of PTT were tried in atherosclerosis and dry eye syndrome. Although most studies have shown promising results, there have been limitations in specificity, targeting efficiency, and tissue penetration using phototherapy. Recently, nanomaterials have shown promising results to overcome these limitations. With advanced technology, nanomedicine-based phototherapy holds great potential for broader clinical practice.

Towards precision nanomedicine for cerebrovascular diseases with emphasis on Cerebral Cavernous Malformation (CCM)

Introduction: Cerebrovascular diseases encompass various disorders of the brain vasculature, such as ischemic/hemorrhagic strokes, aneurysms, and vascular malformations, also affecting the central nervous system leading to a large variety of transient or permanent neurological disorders. They represent major causes of mortality and long-term disability worldwide, and some of them can be inherited, including Cerebral Cavernous Malformation (CCM), an autosomal dominant cerebrovascular disease linked to mutations in CCM1/KRIT1, CCM2, or CCM3/PDCD10 genes.Areas covered: Besides marked clinical and etiological heterogeneity, some commonalities are emerging among distinct cerebrovascular diseases, including key pathogenetic roles of oxidative stress and inflammation, which are increasingly recognized as major disease hallmarks and therapeutic targets. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the different clinical features and common pathogenetic determinants of cerebrovascular diseases, highlighting major challenges, including the pressing need for new diagnostic and therapeutic strategies, and focusing on emerging innovative features and promising benefits of nanomedicine strategies for early detection and targeted treatment of such diseases.Expert opinion: Specifically, we describe and discuss the multiple physico-chemical features and unique biological advantages of nanosystems, including nanodiagnostics, nanotherapeutics, and nanotheranostics, that may help improving diagnosis and treatment of cerebrovascular diseases and neurological comorbidities, with an emphasis on CCM disease.

Redox/photo dual-responsive, self-targeted, and photosensitizer-laden bismuth sulfide nanourchins for combination therapy in cancer

Targeted and stimuli-sensitive nanobombs for the release of therapeutic agents after laser irradiation of the tumor site are gaining widespread attention as personalized anticancer regimens. In this study, redox and photo dual-responsive, folate receptor-targeted nanourchin carriers for chemo-, photodynamic, and photothermal therapy were constructed by the amalgamation of an outer layer of polyethylene glycol (PEG)-S-S-methotrexate (MTX) and an inner core of indocyanine green (ICG)-loaded bismuth sulfide (Bi2S3) nanoparticles for cancer treatment. MTX introduces the carrier to folate receptors resulting in the internalization of nanoparticles into cancer cells, specifically and increasingly. In the reducing environment inside cancer cells, MTX was cleaved, resulting in a burst release that effectively inhibited tumor growth. Simultaneously, the fusion of Bi2S3 and ICG in the inner core absorbed energy from a near-infrared radiation (NIR) laser to generate heat and reactive oxygen species, which further ablated the tumors and synergistically enhanced the anticancer activity of MTX. These results indicate the successful preparation of combined nanourchins (NUs) showing GSH-induced and laser-responsive release of MTX and ICG, accompanied by hyperthermia via Bi2S3 and ICG. Effective in vitro cellular internalization, cellular cytotoxicity, and pro-apoptotic behavior of the nanosystem were achieved through a targeting, redox, and NIR-responsive combination strategy. In vivo biodistribution and photothermal imaging also revealed tumor-selective and -retentive, as well as thermally responsive attributes. Ultimately, this in vivo antitumor study shows an effective tumor ablation by these nanourchins without affecting the vital organs. Our findings indicate that using these targeted redox- and laser-responsive combination therapeutic carriers can be a promising strategy in folate receptor-expressing tumors.

Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles as Carriers for Biomolecules in Cancer Therapy

Mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) offer many advantageous properties for applications in the field of nanobiotechnology. Loading of small molecules into MSNs is straightforward and widely applied, but with the upswing of both research and commercial interest in biological drugs in recent years, also biomacromolecules have been loaded into MSNs for delivery purposes. MSNs possess many critical properties making them a promising and versatile carrier for biomacromolecular delivery. In this chapter, we review the effects of the various structural parameters of MSNs on the effective loading of biomacromolecular therapeutics, with focus on maintaining stability and drug delivery performance. We also emphasize recent studies involving the use of MSNs in the delivery of biomacromolecular drugs, especially for cancer treatment.

Emerging Trends in Nanomedicine for Improving Ocular Drug Delivery: Light-Responsive Nanoparticles, Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles, and Contact Lenses

Vision is the most dominant of our senses, and it is crucial in every stage of our lives. Ocular diseases, regardless of whether they cause vision impairment or not, lead to personal and financial hardships. The anatomy and physiology of the eye strongly limit the efficacy of current ocular drug delivery strategies. Nanotechnology has been the ground for the development of powerful strategies in several fields, namely in medicine. This review highlights emerging nanotechnology-based solutions for improving ocular drug delivery and thus the bioavailability and efficacy of drugs. We focus our review on ambitious but promising approaches currently emerging to leverage the efficacy of nanoparticle-based systems in ocular therapy: (i) light-responsive nanoparticles, which enable spatiotemporal control of drug release; (ii) mesoporous silica nanoparticles, which offer high surface area-to-volume ratio, simple surface modification, good biocompatibility, and improved bioavailability; and (iii) contact lenses, which serve as a compliant method of nanoparticles use and as drug delivery systems for the treatment of ocular diseases.

DNA Nanostructures and DNA-Functionalized Nanoparticles for Cancer Theranostics

In the last two decades, DNA has attracted significant attention toward the development of materials at the nanoscale for emerging applications due to the unparalleled versatility and programmability of DNA building blocks. DNA-based artificial nanomaterials can be broadly classified into two categories: DNA nanostructures (DNA-NSs) and DNA-functionalized nanoparticles (DNA-NPs). More importantly, their use in nanotheranostics, a field that combines diagnostics with therapy via drug or gene delivery in an all-in-one platform, has been applied extensively in recent years to provide personalized cancer treatments. Conveniently, the ease of attachment of both imaging and therapeutic moieties to DNA-NSs or DNA-NPs enables high biostability, biocompatibility, and drug loading capabilities, and as a consequence, has markedly catalyzed the rapid growth of this field. This review aims to provide an overview of the recent progress of DNA-NSs and DNA-NPs as theranostic agents, the use of DNA-NSs and DNA-NPs as gene and drug delivery platforms, and a perspective on their clinical translation in the realm of oncology.

Enteric-Coated Strategies in Colorectal Cancer Nanoparticle Drug Delivery System

Colorectal cancer is one of the most common cancer diseases with the increase of cases prevalence >5% every year. Multidrug resistance mechanisms and non-localized therapy become primary problems of chemotherapy drugs for curing colorectal cancer disease. Therefore, the enteric-coated nanoparticle system has been studied and proved to be able to resolve those problems with good performance for colorectal cancer. The highlight of our review aims to summarize and discuss the enteric-coated nanoparticle drug delivery system specific for colorectal cancer disease. The main and supporting literatures were collected from published research articles of journals indexed in Scopus and PubMed databases. In the oral route of administration, Eudragit pH-sensitive copolymer as a coating agent prevents the degradation of the nanoparticle system from the gastric fluid and releases drug to intestinal-colon track. Therefore, it provides a colon-specific targeting ability. Impressively, enteric-coated nanoparticles having a sustained release profile significantly increase the cytotoxic effect of chemotherapeutic drugs and achieve cell-specific target delivery. The enteric-coated nanoparticle drug delivery system represents an excellent modification to improve the effectiveness and performance of anticancer drugs for colorectal cancer disease in terms of the oral route of administration.

Perspectives on Nanodelivery to the Brain: Prerequisites for Successful Brain Treatment

Nanocarriers (NCs) are promising tools to improve drug delivery across the blood–brain barrier (BBB) for more effective treatment of brain disorders, although there is a scarcity of clinical translation of brain-directed NCs. In order to drive the development of brain-oriented NCs toward clinical success, it is essential to understand the prerequisites for nanodelivery to be successful in brain treatment. In this Perspective, we present how pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD), formulation and nanotoxicity factors impact the therapeutic success of brain-specific nanodelivery. Properties including high loading efficiency, slow in vivo drug release, long systemic circulation, an increase in unbound brain-to-plasma concentration/exposure ratio (K_p,uu,brain), high drug potency, and minimal nanotoxicity are prerequisites that should preferably be combined to maximize the therapeutic potential of a brain-targeted NC. The PK of brain-directed NCs needs to be evaluated in a more therapeutically relevant manner, focusing on the released, unbound drug. It is more crucial to increase the K_p,uu,brain than to improve the ability of the NC to cross the BBB in its intact form. Brain-targeted NCs, which are mostly developed for treating brain tumors, including metastases, should aim to enhance drug delivery not just to tumor regions with disrupted BBB, but equally important to regions with intact BBB where the drugs themselves have problems reaching. This article provides critical insights into how a brain-targeted nanoformulation needs to be designed and optimized to achieve therapeutic success in the brain.

Inhaled cytotoxic chemotherapy: clinical challenges, recent developments, and future prospects

INTRODUCTION

Since 1968, inhaled chemotherapy has been evaluated and has shown promising results up to phase II but has not yet reached the market. This is due to technological and clinical challenges that require to be overcome with the aim of optimizing the efficacy and the tolerance of drug to re-open new developments in this field. Moreover, recent changes in the therapeutic standard of care for treating the patient with lung cancer also open new opportunities to combine inhaled chemotherapy with standard treatments.

AREAS COVERED

Clinical and technological concerns are highlighted from the reported clinical trials made with inhaled cytotoxic chemotherapies. This work then focuses on new pharmaceutical developments using dry powder inhalers as inhalation devices and on formulation strategies based on controlled drug release and with sustained lung retention or based on nanomedicine. Finally, new clinical strategies are described in regard to the impact of the immunotherapy on the patient's standard of care.

EXPERT OPINION

The choice of the drug, inhalation device, and formulation strategy as well as the position of inhaled chemotherapy in the patient's clinical care are crucial factors in optimizing local tolerance and efficacy as well as in its scalability and applicability in clinical practice.

Targeted Engineering of Medicinal Chemistry for Cancer Therapy: Recent Advances and Perspectives

Severe side effects and poor therapeutic efficacy are the main drawbacks of current anticancer drugs. These problems can be mitigated by targeting, but the targeting efficacy of current drugs is poor and urgently needs improvement. Taking this into consideration, this Review first summarizes the current targeting strategies for cancer therapy in terms of cancer tissue and organelles. Then, we analyse the systematic targeting of anticancer drugs and conclude that a typical journey for a targeted drug administered by intravenous injection is a CTIO cascade of at least four steps. Furthermore, to ensure high overall targeting efficacy, the properties of a targeting drug needed in each step are further analysed, and some guidelines for structure optimization to obtain effective targeting drugs are offered. Finally, some viewpoints highlighting the crucial problems and potential challenges of future research on targeted cancer therapy are presented. This review could actively promote the development of precision medicine against cancer.

An Elucidative Review to Analytically Sieve the Viability of Nanomedicine Market

The advent of the twenty-first century marked a paradigm shift in the healthcare sector with coming of automated, sensitive, targeted medicines and technologies having diagnostic, prophylactic and therapeutic effects. Nanomedicines also attained wide acclamation in their initial years, but the transformation from being the proof of concept to successfully marketed products seems very daunting. Although the reason for this may be attributed to slow but incremental character of many present-day technologies, the review asserts that there are other significant facets that may purvey a thorough explanation of this scenario. The article elaborately discusses the hurdles hindering clinical translation of nanomedicines including scale-up challenges, in vitro in vivo cascade of toxicology assays, along with unrefined manufacturing guidelines, inadequate regulatory approvals, competitive conventional market, etc., leading to hesitant investments by pharmaceutical giants. The paper also explores the economic viability of nanobiotechnology sector through an empirical investigation of the revenue data of various pharmaceutical industries manufacturing nano-based drugs, which indicates minor commercial importance of these medicines. We also laid down a comprehensive set of recommendations to smoothen the translational pathway of nanomedicines from an idea to reality, efface the consumer distrust and push boundaries for development and launching of safe, efficient and commercially successful products. Graphical abstract.

Dendrimers toward Translational Nanotherapeutics: Concise Key Step Analysis

The goal of nanomedicine is to address specific clinical problems optimally, to fight human diseases, and to find clinical relevance to change clinical practice. Nanomedicine is poised to revolutionize medicine via the development of more precise diagnostic and therapeutic tools. The field of nanomedicine encompasses numerous features and therapeutic disciplines. A plethora of nanomolecular structures have been engineered and developed for therapeutic applications based on their multitasking abilities and the wide functionalization of their core scaffolds and surface groups. Within nanoparticles used for nanomedicine, dendrimers as well polymers have demonstrated strong potential as nanocarriers, therapeutic agents, and imaging contrast agents. In this review, we present and discuss the different criteria and parameters to be addressed to prepare and develop druggable nanoparticles in general and dendrimers in particular. We also describe the major requirements, included in the preclinical and clinical roadmap, for NPs/dendrimers for the preclinical stage to commercialization. Ultimately, we raise the clinical translation of new nanomedicine issues.

How can nanotechnology help to combat COVID-19? Opportunities and urgent need

Incidents of viral outbreaks have increased at an alarming rate over the past decades. The most recent human coronavirus known as COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2) has already spread around the world and shown R0 values from 2.2 to 2.68. However, the ratio between mortality and number of infections seems to be lower in this case in comparison to other human coronaviruses (such as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV)). These outbreaks have tested the limits of healthcare systems and have posed serious questions about management using conventional therapies and diagnostic tools. In this regard, the use of nanotechnology offers new opportunities for the development of novel strategies in terms of prevention, diagnosis and treatment of COVID-19 and other viral infections. In this review, we discuss the use of nanotechnology for COVID-19 virus management by the development of nano-based materials, such as disinfectants, personal protective equipment, diagnostic systems and nanocarrier systems, for treatments and vaccine development, as well as the challenges and drawbacks that need addressing.

An On-Demand pH-Sensitive Nanocluster for Cancer Treatment by Combining Photothermal Therapy and Chemotherapy

Combination therapy is considered to be a promising strategy for improving the therapeutic efficiency of cancer treatment. In this study, an on-demand pH-sensitive nanocluster (NC) system was prepared by the encapsulation of gold nanorods (AuNR) and doxorubicin (DOX) by a pH-sensitive polymer, poly(aspartic acid-graft-imidazole)-PEG, to enhance the therapeutic effect of chemotherapy and photothermal therapy. At pH 6.5, the NC systems formed aggregated structures and released higher drug amounts while sustaining a stable nano-assembly, structured with less systemic toxicity at pH 7.4. The NC could also increase antitumor efficacy as a result of improved accumulation and release of DOX from the NC system at pHex and pHen with locally applied near-infrared light. Therefore, an NC system would be a potent strategy for on-demand combination treatment to target tumors with less systemic toxicity and an improved therapeutic effect.

Towards bio-compatible magnetic nanoparticles: Immune-related effects, in-vitro internalization, and in-vivo bio-distribution of zwitterionic ferrite nanoparticles with unexpected renal clearance

HYPOTHESIS

Iron oxide and other ferrite nanoparticles have not yet found widespread application in the medical field since the translation process faces several big hurdles. The incomplete knowledge of the interactions between nanoparticles and living organisms is an unfavorable factor. This complex subject should be made simpler by synthesizing magnetic nanoparticles with good physical (relaxivity) and chemical (colloidal stability, anti-fouling) properties and no biological activity (no immune-related effects, minimal internalization, fast clearance). Such an innocent scaffold is the main aim of the present paper. We systematically searched for it within the class of small-to-medium size ferrite nanoparticles coated by small (zwitter)ionic ligands. Once established, it can be functionalized to achieve targeting, drug delivery, etc. and the observed biological effects will be traced back to the functional molecules only, as the nanosized scaffold is innocent.

EXPERIMENTS

We synthesized nine types of magnetic nanoparticles by systematic variation of core composition, size, coating. We investigated their physico-chemical properties and interaction with serum proteins, phagocytic microglial cells, and a human model of inflammation and studied their biodistribution and clearance in healthy mice. The nanoparticles have good magnetic properties and their surface charge is determined by the preferential adsorption of anions. All nanoparticle types can be considered as immunologically safe, an indispensable pre-requisite for medical applications in humans. All but one type display low internalization by microglial BV2 cells, a process strongly affected by the nanoparticle size. Both small (3 nm) and medium size (11 nm) zwitterionic nanoparticles are in part captured by the mononuclear phagocyte system (liver and spleen) and in part rapidly (≈1 h) excreted through the urinary system of mice.

FINDINGS

The latter result questions the universality of the accepted size threshold for the renal clearance of nanoparticles (5.5 nm). We suggest that it depends on the nature of the circulating particles. Renal filterability of medium-size magnetic nanoparticles is appealing because they share with small nanoparticles the decreased accumulation-related toxicity while performing better as magnetic diagnostic/therapeutic agents thanks to their larger magnetic moment. In conclusion, many of our nanoparticle types are a bio-compatible innocent scaffold with unexpectedly favorable clearance.

Importance of the fatty acid chain length on in vitro and in vivo anticancer activity of fattigation-platform albumin nanoparticles in human colorectal cancer xenograft mice model

The aims of this study were to design different chain length fatty acid-conjugated albumin nanoparticles (ANPs) and evaluate their anticancer activity in the HCT116 human colorectal cancer xenograft mouse model. Doxorubicin hydrochloride (DOX·HCl) was chosen as a model drug. The different chain lengths of fatty acids (butyric acid; C4, and stearic acid; C18) in albumin conjugates exhibited different physicochemical properties and anticancer activity. Fatty acid-conjugated albumin aided the formation of self-assembled structures with an average size of approximately 200 nm and a negative charge when incubated with excess DOX in an aqueous solution. DOX-loaded long-chain C18-conjugated ANPs allowed efficient encapsulation of hydrophobic DOX into the core of the self-assembled structure, enabling higher drug loading, enhanced colloidal stability and controlled release behavior in PBS pH 7.4 medium as compared with free DOX·HCl or non-fatty acid conjugated ANPs. Furthermore, DOX-loaded fatty acid-conjugated ANPs showed an increased cellular uptake intensity and cytotoxic effects in vitro. In vivo, HCT116 xenograft model experiments confirmed that DOX-loaded C18-conjugated ANPs showed improved anticancer activity and reduced side effects compared with the DOX-treated groups. The long-chain fatty acid-conjugated ANPs synergistically activated the interaction with the free-fatty acid receptor (FFAR) on HCT116 colorectal cancer cells as compared with short-chain C4 or other non-conjugated ANPs. Specifically, DOX-loaded C18-conjugated NPs exhibited significant performance to overexpressed FFAR4 on HCT116 colorectal cancer cells. The fatty acid chain length in the fattigation-platform system could be a promising molecular moiety to improve targeting efficiency and drug accumulation in various cancer therapy.

Current Status of Alginate in Drug Delivery

Alginate is one of the natural polymers that are often used in drug- and protein-delivery systems. The use of alginate can provide several advantages including ease of preparation, biocompatibility, biodegradability, and nontoxicity. It can be applied to various routes of drug administration including targeted or localized drug-delivery systems. The development of alginates as a selected polymer in various delivery systems can be adjusted depending on the challenges that must be overcome by drug or proteins or the system itself. The increased effectiveness and safety of sodium alginate in the drug- or protein-delivery system are evidenced by changing the physicochemical characteristics of the drug or proteins. In this review, various routes of alginate-based drug or protein delivery, the effectivity of alginate in the stem cells, and cell encapsulation have been discussed. The recent advances in the in vivo alginate-based drug-delivery systems as well as their toxicities have also been reviewed.