101
|
Fox DT, Hotta K, Kim CY, Koppisch AT. The Missing Link in Petrobactin Biosynthesis: asbF Encodes a (−)-3-Dehydroshikimate Dehydratase. Biochemistry 2008; 47:12251-3. [DOI: 10.1021/bi801876q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- David T. Fox
- Biosciences Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, and Department of Biological Science, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117543
| | - Kinya Hotta
- Biosciences Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, and Department of Biological Science, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117543
| | - Chu-Young Kim
- Biosciences Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, and Department of Biological Science, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117543
| | - Andrew T. Koppisch
- Biosciences Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, and Department of Biological Science, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117543
| |
Collapse
|
102
|
Structural and functional analysis of AsbF: origin of the stealth 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid subunit for petrobactin biosynthesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2008; 105:17133-8. [PMID: 18955706 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0808118105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Petrobactin, a virulence-associated siderophore produced by Bacillus anthracis, chelates ferric iron through the rare 3,4-isomer of dihydroxybenzoic acid (3,4-DHBA). Most catechol siderophores, including bacillibactin and enterobactin, use 2,3-DHBA as a biosynthetic subunit. Significantly, siderocalin, a factor involved in human innate immunity, sequesters ferric siderophores bearing the more typical 2,3-DHBA moiety, thereby impeding uptake of iron by the pathogenic bacterial cell. In contrast, the unusual 3,4-DHBA component of petrobactin renders the siderocalin system incapable of obstructing bacterial iron uptake. Although recent genetic and biochemical studies have revealed selected early steps in petrobactin biosynthesis, the origin of 3,4-DHBA as well as the function of the protein encoded by the final gene in the B. anthracis siderophore biosynthetic (asb) operon, asbF (BA1986), has remained unclear. In this study we demonstrate that 3,4-DHBA is produced through conversion of the common bacterial metabolite 3-dehydroshikimate (3-DHS) by AsbF-a 3-DHS dehydratase. Elucidation of the cocrystal structure of AsbF with 3,4-DHBA, in conjunction with a series of biochemical studies, supports a mechanism in which an enolate intermediate is formed through the action of this 3-DHS dehydratase metalloenzyme. Structural and functional parallels are evident between AsbF and other enzymes within the xylose isomerase TIM-barrel family. Overall, these data indicate that microbial species shown to possess homologs of AsbF may, like B. anthracis, also rely on production of the unique 3,4-DHBA metabolite to achieve full viability in the environment or virulence within the host.
Collapse
|
103
|
Maresso AW, Garufi G, Schneewind O. Bacillus anthracis secretes proteins that mediate heme acquisition from hemoglobin. PLoS Pathog 2008; 4:e1000132. [PMID: 18725935 PMCID: PMC2515342 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1000132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2008] [Accepted: 07/22/2008] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Acquisition of iron is necessary for the replication of nearly all bacterial pathogens; however, iron of vertebrate hosts is mostly sequestered by heme and bound to hemoglobin within red blood cells. In Bacillus anthracis, the spore-forming agent of anthrax, the mechanisms of iron scavenging from hemoglobin are unknown. We report here that B. anthracis secretes IsdX1 and IsdX2, two NEAT domain proteins, to remove heme from hemoglobin, thereby retrieving iron for bacterial growth. Unlike other Gram-positive bacteria, which rely on cell wall anchored Isd proteins for heme scavenging, B. anthracis seems to have also evolved NEAT domain proteins in the extracellular milieu and in the bacterial envelope to provide for the passage of heme.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anthony W. Maresso
- Department of Microbiology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Gabriella Garufi
- Department of Microbiology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Olaf Schneewind
- Department of Microbiology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
104
|
Oves-Costales D, Kadi N, Fogg MJ, Song L, Wilson KS, Challis GL. Petrobactin biosynthesis: AsbB catalyzes condensation of spermidine with N8-citryl-spermidine and its N1-(3,4-dihydroxybenzoyl) derivative. Chem Commun (Camb) 2008:4034-6. [PMID: 18758617 DOI: 10.1039/b809353a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The AsbB enzyme, which is involved in the biosynthesis of the virulence-conferring siderophore petrobactin in Bacillus anthracis, is shown to catalyze efficient ATP-dependent condensation of spermidine, but not N1-(3,4-dihydroxbenzoyl)-spermidine, with N8-citryl-spermidine or N1-(3,4-dihydroxbenzoyl)-N8-citryl-spermidine, suggesting that N1-(3,4-dihydroxbenzoyl)-spermidine is very unlikely to be a significant intermediate in petrobactin biosynthesis, contrary to previous suggestions.
Collapse
|
105
|
Koppisch AT, Hotta K, Fox DT, Ruggiero CE, Kim CY, Sanchez T, Iyer S, Browder CC, Unkefer PJ, Unkefer CJ. Biosynthesis of the 3,4-Dihydroxybenzoate Moieties of Petrobactin by Bacillus anthracis. J Org Chem 2008; 73:5759-65. [DOI: 10.1021/jo800427f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew T. Koppisch
- Bioscience Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, Departments of Chemistry and Biology, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona 86011, and Department of Biological Science, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117543
| | - Kinya Hotta
- Bioscience Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, Departments of Chemistry and Biology, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona 86011, and Department of Biological Science, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117543
| | - David T. Fox
- Bioscience Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, Departments of Chemistry and Biology, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona 86011, and Department of Biological Science, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117543
| | - Christy E. Ruggiero
- Bioscience Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, Departments of Chemistry and Biology, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona 86011, and Department of Biological Science, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117543
| | - Chu-Young Kim
- Bioscience Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, Departments of Chemistry and Biology, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona 86011, and Department of Biological Science, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117543
| | - Timothy Sanchez
- Bioscience Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, Departments of Chemistry and Biology, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona 86011, and Department of Biological Science, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117543
| | - Srinivas Iyer
- Bioscience Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, Departments of Chemistry and Biology, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona 86011, and Department of Biological Science, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117543
| | - Cindy C. Browder
- Bioscience Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, Departments of Chemistry and Biology, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona 86011, and Department of Biological Science, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117543
| | - Pat J. Unkefer
- Bioscience Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, Departments of Chemistry and Biology, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona 86011, and Department of Biological Science, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117543
| | - Clifford J. Unkefer
- Bioscience Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, Departments of Chemistry and Biology, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona 86011, and Department of Biological Science, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117543
| |
Collapse
|
106
|
Koppisch AT, Dhungana S, Hill KK, Boukhalfa H, Heine HS, Colip LA, Romero RB, Shou Y, Ticknor LO, Marrone BL, Hersman LE, Iyer S, Ruggiero CE. Petrobactin is produced by both pathogenic and non-pathogenic isolates of the Bacillus cereus group of bacteria. Biometals 2008; 21:581-9. [PMID: 18459058 DOI: 10.1007/s10534-008-9144-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2008] [Accepted: 04/23/2008] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Petrobactin is the primary siderophore synthesized by Bacillus anthracis str Sterne and is required for virulence of this organism in a mouse model. The siderophore's biosynthetic machinery was recently defined and gene homologues of this operon exist in several other Bacillus strains known to be mammalian pathogens, but are absent in several known to be harmless such as B. subtilis and B. lichenformis. Thus, a common hypothesis regarding siderophore production in Bacillus species is that petrobactin production is exclusive to pathogenic isolates. In order to test this hypothesis, siderophores produced by 106 strains of an in-house library of the Bacillus cereus sensu lato group were isolated and identified using a MALDI-TOF-MS assay. Strains were selected from a previously defined phylogenetic tree of this group in order to include both known pathogens and innocuous strains. Petrobactin is produced by pathogenic strains and innocuous isolates alike, and thus is not itself indicative of virulence.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew T Koppisch
- Bioscience Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM 87545, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
107
|
|
108
|
Abergel RJ, Zawadzka AM, Raymond KN. Petrobactin-Mediated Iron Transport in Pathogenic Bacteria: Coordination Chemistry of an Unusual 3,4-Catecholate/Citrate Siderophore. J Am Chem Soc 2008; 130:2124-5. [DOI: 10.1021/ja077202g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca J. Abergel
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720-1460
| | - Anna M. Zawadzka
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720-1460
| | - Kenneth N. Raymond
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720-1460
| |
Collapse
|
109
|
Passalacqua KD, Bergman NH. Bacillus anthracis: interactions with the host and establishment of inhalational anthrax. Future Microbiol 2007; 1:397-415. [PMID: 17661631 DOI: 10.2217/17460913.1.4.397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Due to its potential as a bioweapon, Bacillus anthracis has received a great deal of attention in recent years, and a significant effort has been devoted to understanding how this organism causes anthrax. There has been a particular focus on the inhalational form of the disease, and studies over the past several years have painted an increasingly complex picture of how B. anthracis enters the mammalian host, survives the host's defense mechanisms, disseminates throughout the body and causes death. This article reviews recent advances in these areas, with a focus on how the bacterium interacts with its host in establishing infection and causing anthrax.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Karla D Passalacqua
- University of Michigan Medical School, Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
110
|
Bacillus thuringiensis beyond insect biocontrol: plant growth promotion and biosafety of polyvalent strains. ANN MICROBIOL 2007. [DOI: 10.1007/bf03175344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022] Open
|
111
|
Abstract
High-affinity iron acquisition is mediated by siderophore-dependent pathways in the majority of pathogenic and nonpathogenic bacteria and fungi. Considerable progress has been made in characterizing and understanding mechanisms of siderophore synthesis, secretion, iron scavenging, and siderophore-delivered iron uptake and its release. The regulation of siderophore pathways reveals multilayer networks at the transcriptional and posttranscriptional levels. Due to the key role of many siderophores during virulence, coevolution led to sophisticated strategies of siderophore neutralization by mammals and (re)utilization by bacterial pathogens. Surprisingly, hosts also developed essential siderophore-based iron delivery and cell conversion pathways, which are of interest for diagnostic and therapeutic studies. In the last decades, natural and synthetic compounds have gained attention as potential therapeutics for iron-dependent treatment of infections and further diseases. Promising results for pathogen inhibition were obtained with various siderophore-antibiotic conjugates acting as "Trojan horse" toxins and siderophore pathway inhibitors. In this article, general aspects of siderophore-mediated iron acquisition, recent findings regarding iron-related pathogen-host interactions, and current strategies for iron-dependent pathogen control will be reviewed. Further concepts including the inhibition of novel siderophore pathway targets are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marcus Miethke
- Philipps Universität Marburg, FB Chemie Biochemie, Hans Meerwein Strasse, D-35032 Marburg, Germany
| | | |
Collapse
|
112
|
Oves-Costales D, Kadi N, Fogg MJ, Song L, Wilson KS, Challis GL. Enzymatic logic of anthrax stealth siderophore biosynthesis: AsbA catalyzes ATP-dependent condensation of citric acid and spermidine. J Am Chem Soc 2007; 129:8416-7. [PMID: 17579415 DOI: 10.1021/ja072391o] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
|
113
|
Passalacqua KD, Bergman NH, Lee JY, Sherman DH, Hanna PC. The global transcriptional responses of Bacillus anthracis Sterne (34F2) and a Delta sodA1 mutant to paraquat reveal metal ion homeostasis imbalances during endogenous superoxide stress. J Bacteriol 2007; 189:3996-4013. [PMID: 17384197 PMCID: PMC1913413 DOI: 10.1128/jb.00185-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2007] [Accepted: 03/12/2007] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Microarray analyses were conducted to evaluate the paraquat-induced global transcriptional response of Bacillus anthracis Sterne (34F(2)) to varying levels of endogenous superoxide stress. Data revealed that the transcription of genes putatively involved in metal/ion transport, bacillibactin siderophore biosynthesis, the glyoxalase pathway, and oxidoreductase activity was perturbed most significantly. A B. anthracis mutant lacking the superoxide dismutase gene sodA1 (Delta sodA1) had transcriptional responses to paraquat similar to, but notably larger than, those of the isogenic parental strain. A small, unique set of genes was found to be differentially expressed in the Delta sodA1 mutant relative to the parental strain during growth in rich broth independently of induced oxidative stress. The bacillibactin siderophore biosynthetic genes were notably overexpressed in Sterne and Delta sodA1 cells after treatment with paraquat. The bacillibactin siderophore itself was isolated from the supernatants and lysates of cells grown in iron-depleted medium and was detected at lower levels after treatment with paraquat. This suggests that, while transcriptional regulation of these genes is sensitive to changes in the redox environment, additional levels of posttranscriptional control may exist for bacillibactin biosynthesis, or the enzymatic siderophore pipeline may be compromised by intracellular superoxide stress or damage. The Delta sodA1 mutant showed slower growth in a chelated iron-limiting medium but not in a metal-depleted medium, suggesting a connection between the intracellular redox state and iron/metal ion acquisition in B. anthracis. A double mutant lacking both the sodA1 and sodA2 genes (Delta sodA1 Delta sodA2) was attenuated for growth in manganese-depleted medium, suggesting a slight level of redundancy between sodA1 and sodA2, and a role for the sod genes in manganese homeostasis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Karla D Passalacqua
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
114
|
Lee JY, Janes BK, Passalacqua KD, Pfleger BF, Bergman NH, Liu H, Håkansson K, Somu RV, Aldrich CC, Cendrowski S, Hanna PC, Sherman DH. Biosynthetic analysis of the petrobactin siderophore pathway from Bacillus anthracis. J Bacteriol 2007; 189:1698-710. [PMID: 17189355 PMCID: PMC1855748 DOI: 10.1128/jb.01526-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2006] [Accepted: 12/14/2006] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The asbABCDEF gene cluster from Bacillus anthracis is responsible for biosynthesis of petrobactin, a catecholate siderophore that functions in both iron acquisition and virulence in a murine model of anthrax. We initiated studies to determine the biosynthetic details of petrobactin assembly based on mutational analysis of the asb operon, identification of accumulated intermediates, and addition of exogenous siderophores to asb mutant strains. As a starting point, in-frame deletions of each of the genes in the asb locus (asbABCDEF) were constructed. The individual mutations resulted in complete abrogation of petrobactin biosynthesis when strains were grown on iron-depleted medium. However, in vitro analysis showed that each asb mutant grew to a very limited extent as vegetative cells in iron-depleted medium. In contrast, none of the B. anthracis asb mutant strains were able to outgrow from spores under the same culture conditions. Provision of exogenous petrobactin was able to rescue the growth defect in each asb mutant strain. Taken together, these data provide compelling evidence that AsbA performs the penultimate step in the biosynthesis of petrobactin, involving condensation of 3,4-dihydroxybenzoyl spermidine with citrate to form 3,4-dihydroxybenzoyl spermidinyl citrate. As a final step, the data reveal that AsbB catalyzes condensation of a second molecule of 3,4-dihydroxybenzoyl spermidine with 3,4-dihydroxybenzoyl spermidinyl citrate to form the mature siderophore. This work sets the stage for detailed biochemical studies with this unique acyl carrier protein-dependent, nonribosomal peptide synthetase-independent biosynthetic system.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jung Yeop Lee
- Life Sciences Institute, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2216, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
115
|
Abergel RJ, Wilson MK, Arceneaux JEL, Hoette TM, Strong RK, Byers BR, Raymond KN. Anthrax pathogen evades the mammalian immune system through stealth siderophore production. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006; 103:18499-503. [PMID: 17132740 PMCID: PMC1693691 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0607055103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 149] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Systemic anthrax, caused by inhalation or ingestion of Bacillus anthracis spores, is characterized by rapid microbial growth stages that require iron. Tightly bound and highly regulated in a mammalian host, iron is scarce during an infection. To scavenge iron from its environment, B. anthracis synthesizes by independent pathways two small molecules, the siderophores bacillibactin (BB) and petrobactin (PB). Despite the great efficiency of BB at chelating iron, PB may be the only siderophore necessary to ensure full virulence of the pathogen. In the present work, we show that BB is specifically bound by siderocalin, a recently discovered innate immune protein that is part of an antibacterial iron-depletion defense. In contrast, neither PB nor its ferric complex is bound by siderocalin. Although BB incorporates the common 2,3-dihydroxybenzoyl iron-chelating subunit, PB is novel in that it incorporates the very unusual 3,4-dihydroxybenzoyl chelating subunit. This structural variation results in a large change in the shape of both the iron complex and the free siderophore that precludes siderocalin binding, a stealthy evasion of the immune system. Our results indicate that the blockade of bacterial siderophore-mediated iron acquisition by siderocalin is not restricted to enteric pathogenic organisms and may be a general defense mechanism against several different bacterial species. Significantly, to evade this innate immune response, B. anthracis produces PB, which plays a key role in virulence of the organism. This analysis argues for antianthrax strategies targeting siderophore synthesis and uptake.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca J. Abergel
- *Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720-1460
| | - Melissa K. Wilson
- Department of Microbiology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS 39216-4505; and
| | - Jean E. L. Arceneaux
- Department of Microbiology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS 39216-4505; and
| | - Trisha M. Hoette
- *Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720-1460
| | - Roland K. Strong
- Division of Basic Sciences, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA 98109
| | - B. Rowe Byers
- Department of Microbiology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS 39216-4505; and
| | - Kenneth N. Raymond
- *Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720-1460
- To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|