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Urbaniak Hunter K, Yarbrough C, Ciacci J. Stem cells in the treatment of stroke. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2010; 671:105-16. [PMID: 20455499 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4419-5819-8_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Stroke is an often devastating insult resulting in neurological deficit lasting greater than 24 hours. In the United States, stroke is the third leading cause of death. In those who do not succumb, any outcome from total recovery over a period of weeks to months to persistent profound neurological deficits is possible. Present treatment centers on the decision to administer tissue plasminogen activator, subsequent medical stabilization and early intervention with rehabilitation and risk factor management. The advent of stem cell therapy presents an exciting new frontier for research in stroke treatment, with the potential to cause a paradigm shift from symptomatic control and secondary prevention to reconstitution of neural networks and prevention of neuronal cell death after neurologic injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Klaudia Urbaniak Hunter
- University of Michigan, Department of Radiation Oncology, UH B2C490, 1500 E. Medical Center Dr., Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA.
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102
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Pluta R, Januszewski S, Jabłoński M, Ułamek M. Factors in Creepy Delayed Neuronal Death in Hippocampus Following Brain Ischemia–Reperfusion Injury with Long-Term Survival. BRAIN EDEMA XIV 2010; 106:37-41. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-211-98811-4_5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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103
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Detante O, Moisan A, Dimastromatteo J, Richard MJ, Riou L, Grillon E, Barbier E, Desruet MD, De Fraipont F, Segebarth C, Jaillard A, Hommel M, Ghezzi C, Remy C. Intravenous administration of 99mTc-HMPAO-labeled human mesenchymal stem cells after stroke: in vivo imaging and biodistribution. Cell Transplant 2009; 18:1369-79. [PMID: 19849895 DOI: 10.3727/096368909x474230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSC) are a promising source for cell therapy after stroke. To deliver these cells, an IV injection appears safer than a local graft. We aimed to assess the whole-body biodistribution of IV-injected (99m)Tc-HMPAO-labeled hMSC in normal rats (n = 9) and following a right middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAo, n = 9). Whole-body nuclear imaging, isolated organ counting (at 2 and 20 h after injection) and histology were performed. A higher activity was observed in the right damaged hemisphere of the MCAo group [6.5 +/- 0.9 x 10(-3) % of injected dose (ID)/g] than in the control group (3.6 +/- 1.2 x 10(-3) %ID/g), 20 h after injection. In MCAo rats, right hemisphere activity was higher than that observed in the contralateral hemisphere at 2 h after injection (11.6 +/- 2.8 vs. 9.8 +/- 1.7 x 10(-3) %ID/g). Following an initial hMSC lung accumulation, there was a decrease in pulmonary activity from 2 to 20 h after injection in both groups. The spleen was the only organ in which activity increased between 2 and 20 h. The presence of hMSC was documented in the spleen, liver, lung, and brain following histology. IV-injected hMSC are transiently trapped in the lungs, can be sequestered in the spleen, and are predominantly eliminated by kidneys. After 20 h, more hMSC are found in the ischemic lesion than into the undamaged cerebral tissue. IV delivery of hMSC could be the initial route for a clinical trial of tolerance.
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104
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Chen S, Li G, Zhang W, Wang J, Sigmund CD, Olson JE, Chen Y. Ischemia-induced brain damage is enhanced in human renin and angiotensinogen double-transgenic mice. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2009; 297:R1526-31. [PMID: 19759335 DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.91040.2008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
To investigate the role of brain angiotensin II (ANG II) in the pathogenesis of injury following ischemic stroke, mice overexpressing renin and angiotensinogen (R+A+) and their wild-type control animals (R-A-) were used for experimental ischemia studies. Focal brain ischemia was induced by middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO). The severity of ischemic injury was determined by measuring neurological deficits and histological damage at 24 and 48 h after MCAO, respectively. To exclude the influence of blood pressure and local collateral blood flow, brain slices were used for oxygen and glucose deprivation (OGD) studies. The severity of OGD-induced damage was determined by measuring indicators of tissue swelling and cell death, the intensity of the intrinsic optical signal (IOS), and the number of propidium iodide (PI) staining cells, respectively. Results showed 1) R+A+ mice showed higher neurological deficit score (3.8 +/- 0.5 and 2.5 +/- 0.3 for R+A+ and R-A-, respectively, P < 0.01) and larger infarct volume (22.2 +/- 1.6% and 14.1 +/- 1.2% for R+A+ and R-A-, respectively, P < 0.01); 2) The R+A+ brain slices showed more severe tissue swelling and cell death in the cortex (IOS: 140 +/- 6% and 114 +/- 10%; PI: 139 +/- 20 cells/field and 39 +/- 9 cells/field for R+A+ and R-A-, respectively, P < 0.01); 3) treatment with losartan (20 micromol/l) abolished OGD-induced exaggeration of cell injury seen in R+A+ mice. The data indicate that activation of ANG II/AT(1) signaling is harmful to brain exposed to ischemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuzhen Chen
- Departments of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Wright State University, Dayton, Ohio, USA
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105
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Cui X, Chopp M, Zacharek A, Roberts C, Lu M, Savant-Bhonsale S, Chen J. Chemokine, vascular and therapeutic effects of combination Simvastatin and BMSC treatment of stroke. Neurobiol Dis 2009; 36:35-41. [PMID: 19591934 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2009.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2009] [Revised: 06/15/2009] [Accepted: 06/28/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022] Open
Abstract
We investigated the additive therapeutic effect of the combination treatment of stroke with sub-therapeutic doses of Simvastatin, a HMG-CoA reductase inhibitor, and bone marrow stromal cells (BMSCs). Rats were administered Simvastatin (0.5 mg/kg), BMSCs (1x10(6)) or combination of Simvastatin and BMSCs starting at 24 h after stroke. Combination treatment significantly improved neurological outcome, enhanced angiogenesis and arteriogenesis, and increased the number of engrafted-BMSCs in the ischemic brain. The number of engrafted-BMSCs and arteriogenesis was significantly correlated with functional outcome. Simvastatin significantly increased stromal cell-derived factor-1 (SDF1) expression in the ischemic brain and chemokine (CXC motif) receptor-4 (CXCR4) in BMSCs, and increased BMSC migration to RBMECs and astrocytes. Combination treatment of stroke upregulates the SDF1/CXCR4 axis and enhances BMSC migration into the ischemic brain, amplifies arteriogenesis and angiogenesis, and improves functional outcome after stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xu Cui
- Department of Neurology, E&R Bldg., Room 3091, Henry Ford Hospital, 2799 W Grand Blvd, Detroit, MI 48202, USA
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106
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Glavaski-Joksimovic A, Virag T, Chang QA, West NC, Mangatu TA, McGrogan MP, Dugich-Djordjevic M, Bohn MC. Reversal of Dopaminergic Degeneration in a Parkinsonian Rat following Micrografting of Human Bone Marrow-Derived Neural Progenitors. Cell Transplant 2009; 18:801-14. [DOI: 10.3727/096368909x470801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a common neurodegenerative disease characterized by the selective loss of dopaminergic (DA) neurons in the midbrain. Various types of stem cells that have potential to differentiate into DA neurons are being investigated as cellular therapies for PD. Stem cells also secrete growth factors and therefore also may have therapeutic effects in promoting the health of diseased DA neurons in the PD brain. To address this possibility in an experimental model of PD, bone marrow-derived neuroprogenitor-like cells were generated from bone marrow procured from healthy human adult volunteers and their potential to elicit recovery of damaged DA axons was studied in a partial lesion rat model of PD. Following collection of bone marrow, mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) were isolated and then genetically modified to create SB623 cells by transient transfection with the intracellular domain of the Notch1 gene (NICD), a modification that upregulates expression of certain neuroprogenitor markers. Ten deposits of 0.5 μl of SB623 cell suspension adjusted from 6,000 to 21,000 cells/μl in PBS or PBS alone were stereotaxically placed in the striatum 1 week after the nigrostriatal projection had been partially lesioned in adult F344 rats by injection of 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) into the striatum. At 3 weeks, a small number of grafted SB623 cells survived in the lesioned striatum as visualized by expression of the human specific nuclear matrix protein (hNuMA). In rats that received SB623 cells, but not in control rats, dense tyrosine hydroxylase immunoreactive (TH-ir) fibers were observed around the grafts. These fibers appeared to be rejuvenated host DA axons because no TH-ir in soma of surviving SB623 cells or coexpression of TH and hNuMA-ir were observed. In addition, dense serotonin immunoreactive (5-HT-ir) fibers were observed around grafted SB623 cells and these fibers also appeared to be of the host origin. Also, in some SB623 grafted rats that were sacrificed within 2 h of dl-amphetamine injection, hot spots of c-Fos-positive nuclei that coincided with rejuvenated dense TH fibers around the grafted SB623 cells were observed, suggesting increased availability of DA in these locations. Our observations suggest that NICD-transfected MSC hold potential as a readily available autologous or allogenic cellular therapy for ameliorating the degeneration of DA and 5-HT neurons in PD patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aleksandra Glavaski-Joksimovic
- Department of Pediatrics, Neurobiology Program, Children's Memorial Research Center, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Tamas Virag
- Department of Pediatrics, Neurobiology Program, Children's Memorial Research Center, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Qin A. Chang
- Department of Pediatrics, Neurobiology Program, Children's Memorial Research Center, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Neva C. West
- Department of Pediatrics, Neurobiology Program, Children's Memorial Research Center, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Thomas A. Mangatu
- Department of Pediatrics, Neurobiology Program, Children's Memorial Research Center, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
| | | | | | - Martha C. Bohn
- Department of Pediatrics, Neurobiology Program, Children's Memorial Research Center, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
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107
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Hokari M, Kuroda S, Chiba Y, Maruichi K, Iwasaki Y. Synergistic effects of granulocyte-colony stimulating factor on bone marrow stromal cell transplantation for mice cerebral infarct. Cytokine 2009; 46:260-6. [PMID: 19286390 DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2009.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2008] [Revised: 12/23/2008] [Accepted: 02/12/2009] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
This study was aimed to assess whether ex vivo treatment with granulocyte-colony stimulating factor (G-CSF) modifies biological properties of bone marrow stromal cells (BMSC) and enhances functional recovery by BMSC transplantation into infarct brain. Immunohistochemistry was conducted to characterize the cultured BMSC. The pharmacological effects of G-CSF on their proliferation, cell cycle, and growth factor production were precisely analyzed, using FACS and ELISA techniques. Non-treated or G-CSF treated BMSC were stereotactically transplanted into the mice brain subjected to cerebral infarct, and its effects on functional and histological aspects were evaluated. The BMSC expressed the receptor for G-CSF. Treatment with 0.1muM of G-CSF significantly enhanced the proliferation of BMSC by increasing their population in S phase, and increased their production of SDF-1alpha, HGF, and NGF. When transplanted into infarct brain, G-CSF treated BMSC significantly improved motor function as early as 2 weeks after transplantation, whereas non-treated BMSC did 4 weeks after transplantation. These findings strongly suggest that G-CSF may enhance the proliferation and growth factor production of the cultured BMSC and accelerate functional restoration by BMSC transplantation. Such pharmacological "activation" of the BMSC may contribute to successful clinical application of BMSC transplantation therapy for ischemic stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masaaki Hokari
- Department of Neurosurgery, Hokkaido University Graduate School of Medicine, North 15 West 7, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-8638, Japan
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108
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Zhang ZG, Chopp M. Neurorestorative therapies for stroke: underlying mechanisms and translation to the clinic. Lancet Neurol 2009; 8:491-500. [PMID: 19375666 PMCID: PMC2727708 DOI: 10.1016/s1474-4422(09)70061-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 464] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Restorative cell-based and pharmacological therapies for experimental stroke substantially improve functional outcome. These therapies target several types of parenchymal cells (including neural stem cells, cerebral endothelial cells, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and neurons), leading to enhancement of endogenous neurogenesis, angiogenesis, axonal sprouting, and synaptogenesis in the ischaemic brain. Interaction between these restorative events probably underpins the improvement in functional outcome. This Review provides examples of cell-based and pharmacological restorative treatments for stroke that stimulate brain plasticity and functional recovery. The molecular pathways activated by these therapies, which induce remodelling of the injured brain via angiogenesis, neurogenesis, and axonal and dendritic plasticity, are discussed. The ease of treating intact brain tissue to stimulate functional benefit in restorative therapy compared with treating injured brain tissue in neuroprotective therapy might more readily help with translation of restorative therapy from the laboratory to the clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zheng Gang Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, MI 48202, USA
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109
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Eve DJ, Musso J, Park DH, Oliveira C, Pollock K, Hope A, Baradez MO, Sinden JD, Sanberg PR. Methodological study investigating long term laser Doppler measured cerebral blood flow changes in a permanently occluded rat stroke model. J Neurosci Methods 2009; 180:52-6. [PMID: 19427529 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2009.02.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2009] [Revised: 02/20/2009] [Accepted: 02/24/2009] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Cerebral blood flow is impaired during middle cerebral artery occlusion in the rat model of stroke. However, the long term effects on cerebral blood flow following occlusion have received little attention. We examined cerebral blood flow in both sides at multiple time points following middle cerebral artery occlusion of the rat. The bilateral cerebral blood flow in young male Sprague Dawley rats was measured at the time of occlusion, as well as 4, 10 and 16 weeks after occlusion. Under the present experimental conditions, the difference between the left and right side's cerebral blood flow was observed to appear to switch in direction in a visual oscillatory fashion over time in the sham-treated group, whereas the occluded animals consistently showed left side dominance. One group of rats was intraparenchymally transplanted with a human neural stem cell line (CTX0E03 cells) known to have benefit in stroke models. Cerebral blood flow in the lesioned side of the cell-treated group was observed to be improved compared to the untreated rats and to demonstrate a similar oscillatory nature as that observed in sham-treated animals. These findings suggest that multiple bilateral monitoring of cerebral blood flow over time can show effects of stem cell transplantation efficiently as well as functional tests in an animal stroke model.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J Eve
- Center of Excellence for Aging and Brain Repair, Department of Neurosurgery, MDC-78, University of South Florida College of Medicine, 12901 Bruce B. Downs Blvd., Tampa, FL 33612, USA.
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110
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Choi W, Shin HK, Eun SH, Kang HC, Park SW, Yoo KH, Hong YS, Lee JW, Eun BL. Functional recovery after transplantation of mouse bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells for hypoxic-ischemic brain injury in immature rats. KOREAN JOURNAL OF PEDIATRICS 2009. [DOI: 10.3345/kjp.2009.52.7.824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Wooksun Choi
- Department of Pediatrics, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Hye Kyung Shin
- Department of Pediatrics, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - So-Hee Eun
- Department of Pediatrics, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Hoon Chul Kang
- Department of Pediatrics, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Sung Won Park
- Department of Pediatrics, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Kee Hwan Yoo
- Department of Pediatrics, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Young Sook Hong
- Department of Pediatrics, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Joo Won Lee
- Department of Pediatrics, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Baik-Lin Eun
- Department of Pediatrics, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
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111
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Dharmasaroja P. Bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells for the treatment of ischemic stroke. J Clin Neurosci 2008; 16:12-20. [PMID: 19017556 DOI: 10.1016/j.jocn.2008.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2008] [Revised: 05/12/2008] [Accepted: 05/17/2008] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have great potential as therapeutic agents in stroke management, since they are easily accessible and can be rapidly expanded ex vivo for autologous transplantation. Increasing evidence suggests that bone marrow cells migrate throughout the brain and differentiate into neurons and glial cells. Both non-human and human MSCs have been used to treat stroke in murine models with satisfactory results. Several factors, such as transdifferentiation, induction of neurogenesis and angiogenesis, neuroprotection, and activation of endogenous neurorestorative processes, contribute to the benefits of MSCs in the ischemic brain. Many variables, including types of MSCs, cell dose, timing of treatment, route of cell delivery, and characteristics of stroke patients, influence the efficacy of MSC treatment of stroke. Although the first trials of autologous MSC therapy in stroke patients showed promising results, the optimal approach for different clinical settings has yet to be determined. The fundamental properties of MSCs and their potential short-term and long-term toxicities also need to be determined before moving forward to use of these cells in clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Permphan Dharmasaroja
- Department of Anatomy and Center for Neuroscience, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Rama VI Road, Rajthevi, Bangkok 10400, Thailand.
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112
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Yasuhara T, Hara K, Maki M, Masuda T, Sanberg CD, Sanberg PR, Bickford PC, Borlongan CV. Dietary supplementation exerts neuroprotective effects in ischemic stroke model. Rejuvenation Res 2008; 11:201-14. [PMID: 18260778 DOI: 10.1089/rej.2007.0608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
This study examined whether dietary supplementation can be used to protect against ischemic stroke. Two groups of adult male Sprague-Dawley rats initially received NT-020, a proprietary formulation of blueberry, green tea, Vitamin D3, and carnosine (n = 8), or vehicle (n = 7). Dosing for NT-020 and vehicle consisted of daily oral administration (using a gavage) over a 2-week period. On day 14 following the last drug treatment, all animals underwent the stroke surgery using the transient 1-hour suture occlusion of middle cerebral artery (MCAo). To reveal the functional effects of NT-020, animals were subjected to established behavioral tests just prior to stroke surgery and again on day 14 post-stroke. ANOVA revealed significant treatment effects (p < 0.05), characterized by reductions of 11.8% and 24.4% in motor asymmetry and neurologic dysfunction, respectively, in NT-020-treated stroke animals compared to vehicle-treated stroke animals. Evaluation of cerebral infarction revealed a significant 75% decrement in mean glial scar area in the ischemic striatum of NT-020-treated stroke animals compared to that of vehicle-treated stroke animals (p < 0.0005). Quantitative analysis of subventricular zone's cell proliferative activity revealed at least a one-fold increment in the number of BrdU-positive cells in the NT-020-treated stroke brains compared to vehicle-treated stroke brains (p < 0.0005). Similarly, quantitative analysis of BrdU labeling in the ischemic striatal penumbra revealed at least a three-fold increase in the number of BrdU-positive cells in the NT-020-treated stroke brains compared to vehicle-treated stroke brains (p < 0.0001). In addition, widespread double labeling of cells with BrdU and doublecortin was detected in NT-020-treated stroke brains (intact side 17% and ischemic side 75%), which was significantly higher than those seen in vehicle-treated stroke brains (intact side 5% and ischemic side 13%) (p < 0.05). In contrast, only a small number of cells in NT-020-treated stroke brains double labeled with BrdU and GFAP (intact side 1% and ischemic side 2%), which was significantly lower than those vehicle-treated stroke brains (intact side 18% and ischemic side 35%) (p < 0.0001). Endogenous neurogenic factors were also significantly upregulated in the ischemic brains of NT-020-treated stroke animals. These data demonstrate the remarkable neuroprotective effects of NT-020 when given prior to stroke, possibly acting via its neurogenic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takao Yasuhara
- Department of Neurology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta, Georgia 30912, USA.
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113
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Yoshihara T, Taguchi A, Matsuyama T, Shimizu Y, Kikuchi-Taura A, Soma T, Stern DM, Yoshikawa H, Kasahara Y, Moriwaki H, Nagatsuka K, Naritomi H. Increase in circulating CD34-positive cells in patients with angiographic evidence of moyamoya-like vessels. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2008; 28:1086-9. [PMID: 18231114 DOI: 10.1038/jcbfm.2008.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Increasing evidence points to a role for circulating endothelial progenitor cells, including populations of CD34-positive (CD34(+)) cells, in maintenance of cerebral blood flow. In this study, we investigated the link between the level of circulating CD34(+) cells and neovascularization at ischemic brain. Compared with control subjects, a remarkable increase of circulating CD34(+) cells was observed in patients with angiographic moyamoya vessels, although no significant change was observed in patients with major cerebral artery occlusion (or severe stenosis) but without moyamoya vessels. Our results suggest that the increased level of CD34(+) cells associated with ischemic stress is correlated with neovascularization at human ischemic brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomoyuki Yoshihara
- Department of Cerebrovascular Disease, National Cardiovascular Center, Osaka, Japan
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114
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Ross JJ, Verfaillie CM. Evaluation of neural plasticity in adult stem cells. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2008; 363:199-205. [PMID: 17282993 PMCID: PMC2605495 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2006.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The role of stem cells has long been known in reproductive organs and various tissues including the haematopoietic system and skin. During the last decade, stem cells have also been identified in other organs, including the nervous system, both during development and in post-natal life. More recently, evidence has been presented that stem cells thought to be responsible for the generation of mature differentiated cells of one organ, such as haematopoietic stem cells, may have the ability to also differentiate across lineages and contribute to tissues other than haematopoietic cells, including neuronal tissue, suggesting that easily accessible stem cells sources may one day be useful in the therapy of ischaemic (stroke) and also degenerative diseases of the nervous system. Here, we will evaluate the validity of such claims based on a number of criteria we believe need to be fulfilled to definitively conclude that certain stem cells can give rise to functional neural cells that might be suitable for therapy of neural disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey J Ross
- Stem Cell Institute, Cell Biology and Development, University of Minnesota Medical SchoolMN 55455, USA
- Department of Genetics, Cell Biology and Development, University of Minnesota Medical SchoolMN 55455, USA
| | - Catherine M Verfaillie
- Stem Cell Institute, Cell Biology and Development, University of Minnesota Medical SchoolMN 55455, USA
- Division of Hematology, Oncology, and Transplantation, Cell Biology and Development, University of Minnesota Medical SchoolMN 55455, USA
- Author for correspondence ()
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115
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Intravenous administration of bone marrow stromal cells increases survivin and Bcl-2 protein expression and improves sensorimotor function following ischemia in rats. Neurosci Lett 2008; 430:109-14. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2007.10.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2007] [Revised: 10/08/2007] [Accepted: 10/25/2007] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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116
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Role of SDF-1/CXCR4 system in survival and migration of bone marrow stromal cells after transplantation into mice cerebral infarct. Brain Res 2007; 1183:138-47. [PMID: 17976542 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2007.08.091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2007] [Revised: 08/25/2007] [Accepted: 08/30/2007] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Recent studies have indicated that bone marrow stromal cells (BMSC) have the potential to improve neurological function when transplanted into animal models of cerebral infarction. However, it is still obscure how the transplanted BMSC restore the lost neurological function. In this study, therefore, we aimed to elucidate the role of stromal cell-derived factor-1 (SDF-1) and its specific receptor, CXCR4, in BMSC transplantation into the brain subjected to cerebral infarction. The BMSC were harvested from the wild type (WT) and CXCR4-knockout (CXCR4-KO) mice and were cultured. The mice were subjected to permanent middle cerebral artery occlusion. The WT or CXCR4-KO BMSC was injected into the ipsilateral striatum 7 days after the insult. Motor function of the animals was serially evaluated, using a rotarod treadmill. Using fluorescence immunohistochemistry, we evaluated the distribution and phenotype of the transplanted cells 4 weeks after transplantation. Recovery of motor function in the WT BMSC-transplanted mice was more pronounced than in the CXCR4-KO-transplanted mice and the vehicle-treated ones. SDF-1 was extensively expressed in peri-infarct area. In the WT BMSC-transplanted mice, the transplanted cells were extensively distributed in the ipsilateral hemisphere, and many of them migrated towards the peri-infarct area and expressed the proteins specific for neurons and astrocytes, although these findings were not observed in the CXCR4-KO-transplanted mice. The results suggest that the SDF-1/CXCR4 system may play a critical role in the survival, proliferation and migration of the transplanted BMSC and contribute to recovery of neurological function.
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117
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Lapergue B, Mohammad A, Shuaib A. Endothelial progenitor cells and cerebrovascular diseases. Prog Neurobiol 2007; 83:349-62. [PMID: 17884277 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2007.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2006] [Revised: 06/26/2007] [Accepted: 08/03/2007] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Identifying factors that may increase the risk of stroke and assessing if treatment of such conditions may lower that risk are important in the management of cerebrovascular disease. Tobacco smoking, poor diet, hypertension and hyperlipidemia remain the major risk factors, and treatment of these conditions has been shown to significantly reduce stroke. In recent years, research has shown that stem cells from a variety of sources can be used as a tool to study and prevent the events that lead to stroke. In this regard, a population of adult stem cells, called endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs), have been identified in peripheral blood and may play an important role in tissue vascularization and endothelium homeostasis in the adult. Most of the studies on EPCs have been carried out on patients with cardiovascular diseases; however, there is emerging evidence which suggests that the introduction or mobilization of EPCs can restore tissue vascularization even after cerebrovascular diseases (CVD), such as ischemic stroke or intracerebral haemorrhage. In this review, we discuss the present level of knowledge about the characteristics of EPCs, their possible therapeutic role in CVD and how they could alter clinical practice in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bertrand Lapergue
- Stroke Research Unit, Division of Neurology, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Alberta, Canada
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118
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Rice CM, Scolding NJ. Autologous bone marrow stem cells--properties and advantages. J Neurol Sci 2007; 265:59-62. [PMID: 17669432 DOI: 10.1016/j.jns.2007.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2007] [Revised: 05/10/2007] [Accepted: 06/14/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The properties of self-renewal and multi-lineage differentiation make stem cells attractive candidates for use in cellular reparative therapy, particularly in neurological diseases where there is a paucity of treatment options. However, clinical trials using foetal material in Parkinson's disease have been disappointing and highlighted problems associated with the use of embryonic stem cells, including ethical issues and practical concerns regarding teratoma formation. Understandably, this has led investigators to explore alternative sources of stem cells for transplantation. The expression of neuroectodermal markers by cells of bone marrow origin focused attention on these adult stem cells. Although early enthusiasm has been tempered by dispute regarding the validity of reports of in vitro (trans)differentiation, the demonstration of functional benefit in animal models of neurological disease is encouraging. Here we will review some of the required properties of stem cells for use in transplantation therapy with specific reference to the development of bone marrow-derived cells as a source of cells for repair in demyelination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire M Rice
- University of Bristol Institute of Clinical Neurosciences, Department of Neurology, Frenchay Hospital, Bristol BS16 1LE, UK
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119
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Parr AM, Tator CH, Keating A. Bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stromal cells for the repair of central nervous system injury. Bone Marrow Transplant 2007; 40:609-19. [PMID: 17603514 DOI: 10.1038/sj.bmt.1705757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 331] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Transplantation of bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) into the injured brain or spinal cord may provide therapeutic benefit. Several models of central nervous system (CNS) injury have been examined, including that of ischemic stroke, traumatic brain injury and traumatic spinal cord injury in rodent, primate and, more recently, human trials. Although it has been suggested that differentiation of MSCs into cells of neural lineage may occur both in vitro and in vivo, this is unlikely to be a major factor in functional recovery after brain or spinal cord injury. Other mechanisms of recovery that may play a role include neuroprotection, creation of a favorable environment for regeneration, expression of growth factors or cytokines, vascular effects or remyelination. These mechanisms are not mutually exclusive, and it is likely that more than one contribute to functional recovery. In light of the uncertainty surrounding the fate and mechanism of action of MSCs transplanted into the CNS, further preclinical studies with appropriate animal models are urgently needed to better inform the design of new clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- A M Parr
- Department of Surgery, University Health Network and Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
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120
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Matsukawa N, Maki M, Yasuhara T, Hara K, Yu G, Xu L, Kim KM, Morgan JC, Sethi KD, Borlongan CV. Overexpression of D2/D3 receptors increases efficacy of ropinirole in chronically 6-OHDA-lesioned Parkinsonian rats. Brain Res 2007; 1160:113-23. [PMID: 17573046 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2007.05.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2007] [Revised: 05/12/2007] [Accepted: 05/17/2007] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Ropinirole, which is a non-ergot dopamine agonist derivative, exerts therapeutic benefits in Parkinson's disease (PD). Based on recent studies implicating dopamine receptors 2 and 3 (D2R and D3R) as possible targets of ropinirole, we over-expressed these dopamine receptor genes in the dopamine-denervated striatum of rodents to reveal whether their over-expression modulated ropinirole activity. Adult Sprague-Dawley rats initially received unilateral 6-hydroxydopamine lesion of the medial forebrain bundle. At 1 month after surgery, successfully lesioned animals (3 or less forelimb akinesia score, and 8 or more apomorphine-induced rotations/min over 1 h) were randomly assigned to intrastriatal injection (ipsilateral to the lesion) of blank lentiviral vector, D2R, D3R or both genes. At about 5 months post-lesion, ropinirole (0.2 mg/kg, i.p.) was administered daily for 9 consecutive days. The subtherapeutic dose of ropinirole improved the use of previously akinetic forelimb and produced robust circling behavior in lesioned animals with striatal over-expression of both D2R and D3R compared to lesioned animals that received blank vector. In contrast, the subtherapeutic dose of ropinirole generated only modest motor effects in lesioned animals with sole over-expression of D2R or D3R. Western immunoblot and autoradiographic assays showed enhanced D2R and D3R protein levels coupled with normalized D2R and D3R binding in the ventral striatum of lesioned animals with lentiviral over-expression of both D2R and D3R relative to vehicle-treated lesioned animals. Immunohistochemical analyses showed that D2R and D3R GFP fluorescent cells colocalized with enkephalin and substance P immunoreactive medium spiny neurons. These data support the use of the subtherapeutic dose of ropinirole in a chronic model of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Matsukawa
- Department of Neurology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
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121
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Abstract
In spite of the commonly held belief that ‘the brain does not regenerate’, it is now accepted that postnatal neurogenesis does occur. Thus, one wonders whether cellular-replacement therapy might be used to heal the brain in diseases caused by neuronal cell loss. The existence of neural stem cells has been demonstrated by many scientists and is now generally accepted. The exact role of these cells, how their numbers are regulated and how they participate in CNS and spinal cord regeneration in postnatal life are still not well known. There are many reviews summarizing work on these cells; consequently, I will focus instead on other cells that may participate in postnatal neurogenesis: bone marrow-derived stem cells. The possibility that bone marrow-derived stem cells populate the CNS and differentiate into various neural elements is certainly not universally accepted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Mezey
- CSDB, NIDCR, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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122
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Jiang Q, Zhang ZG, Ding GL, Silver B, Zhang L, Meng H, Lu M, Pourabdillah-Nejed-D S, Wang L, Savant-Bhonsale S, Li L, Bagher-Ebadian H, Hu J, Arbab AS, Vanguri P, Ewing JR, Ledbetter KA, Chopp M. MRI detects white matter reorganization after neural progenitor cell treatment of stroke. Neuroimage 2006; 32:1080-9. [PMID: 16860575 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.05.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2006] [Revised: 04/27/2006] [Accepted: 05/09/2006] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
We evaluated the effects of neural progenitor cell treatment of stroke on white matter reorganization using MRI. Male Wistar rats (n = 26) were subjected to 3 h of middle cerebral artery occlusion and were treated with neural progenitor cells (n = 17) or without treatment (n = 9) and were sacrificed at 5-7 weeks thereafter. MRI measurements revealed that grafted neural progenitor cells selectively migrated towards the ischemic boundary regions. White matter reorganization, confirmed histologically, was coincident with increases of fractional anisotropy (FA, P < 0.01) after stroke in the ischemic recovery regions compared to that in the ischemic core region in both treated and control groups. Immunoreactive staining showed axonal projections emanating from neurons and extruding from the corpus callosum into the ipsilateral striatum bounding the lesion areas after stroke. Fiber tracking (FT) maps derived from diffusion tensor imaging revealed similar orientation patterns to the immunohistological results. Complementary measurements in stroke patients indicated that FT maps exhibit an overall orientation parallel to the lesion boundary. Our data demonstrate that FA and FT identify and characterize cerebral tissue undergoing white matter reorganization after stroke and treatment with neural progenitor cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quan Jiang
- Department of Neurology, Henry Ford Health Sciences Center, Henry Ford Hospital, 2799 West Grand Boulevard, Detroit, MI 48202, USA.
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123
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Yanqing Z, Yu-Min L, Jian Q, Bao-Guo X, Chuan-Zhen L. Fibronectin and neuroprotective effect of granulocyte colony-stimulating factor in focal cerebral ischemia. Brain Res 2006; 1098:161-9. [PMID: 16814750 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2006.02.140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2005] [Revised: 02/20/2006] [Accepted: 02/22/2006] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Stroke is one of the leading causes of unnatural death and disability. No effective therapy is available. Recombinant human granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (rhG-CSF), as a mobilizing agent for bone marrow stem cells, can promote stem cell mobilization, homing to brain after cerebral ischemia. In the present study, the administration of G-CSF significantly increased number of CD34(+) cells in the marginal zone of the infarction. Rats receiving G-CSF had higher survival rate and lower infarction volume. Neurological behavior was improved, and the expression of fibronectin in the ischemic brain was increased, as compared to rats treated with vehicle. To mimic the ischemia-reperfusion injury in experimental animals, we employed hippocampal slice cultures that were first treated with oxygen and glucose deprivation (OGD) and then with oxygen-glucose resupply, finding that fibronectin significantly increased the neurite outgrowth of OGD hippocampal slices, upregulated the expression of Bcl-2 protein, and ameliorated the ultrastructure damage of OGD hippocampal slices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhao Yanqing
- Institute of Neurology, Huashan Hospital, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
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124
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Yasuhara T, Matsukawa N, Yu G, Xu L, Mays RW, Kovach J, Deans R, Hess DC, Carroll JE, Borlongan CV. Transplantation of cryopreserved human bone marrow-derived multipotent adult progenitor cells for neonatal hypoxic-ischemic injury: targeting the hippocampus. Rev Neurosci 2006; 17:215-25. [PMID: 16703953 DOI: 10.1515/revneuro.2006.17.1-2.215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
There is currently no treatment for neonatal hypoxic-ischemic (HI) injury. Although limited clinical trials of stem cell therapy have been initiated in a number of neurological disorders, the preclinical evidence of a cell-based therapy for neonatal HI injury remains in its infancy. Stem cell therapy, via stimulation of endogenous stem cells or transplantation of exogenous stem cells, has targeted neurogenic sites, such as the hippocampus, for brain protection and repair. The hippocampus has also been shown to secrete growth factors, especially during the postnatal period, suggesting that this brain region presents a highly conducive microenvironment for cell survival. Based on its neurogenic and neurotrophic factor-secreting features, the hippocampus stands as an appealing target for stem cell therapy. In the present study, we investigated the efficacy of intrahippocampal transplantation of multipotent adult progenitor cells (MAPCs), which are pluripotent progenitor cells with the ability to differentiate into a neuronal lineage. Seven-day old Sprague-Dawley rats were initially subjected to unilateral HI injury, that involved permanent ligation of the right common carotid artery and subsequent exposure to hypoxic environment. At day 7 after HI
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Affiliation(s)
- Takao Yasuhara
- Department of Neurology, Medical College of Georgia, 1120 15th Street, Augusta, GA 30912-3200, USA
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125
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Dezawa M, Hoshino M, Ide C. Treatment of neurodegenerative diseases using adult bone marrow stromal cell-derived neurons. Expert Opin Biol Ther 2006; 5:427-35. [PMID: 15934822 DOI: 10.1517/14712598.5.4.427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Many neurodegenerative diseases are attributed to the degeneration of neurons with subsequent functional loss. Cell transplantation is a strategy with potential for treating such diseases, and many kinds of cells are considered candidates for transplantation therapy. Bone marrow stromal cells (MSCs) have great potential as therapeutic agents, as they are easy to isolate and expand from patients without serious ethical and technical problems. The authors have found a method for the highly efficient, exclusive and specific induction of functional postmitotic neuronal cells from both rat and human MSCs. Gene transfer of Notch intracellular domain (NICD) followed by the administration of certain trophic factors induced mature neurons expressing neuronal markers, some of which showed action potentials. Induced neurons were transplanted to animal models of neurodegenerative disorders, including Parkinson's disease and ischaemic brain injury, resulting in the successful integration of transplanted cells and improvement in function of the transplanted animals. This review summarises the respective potentials, benefits and drawbacks of MSC-derived neurons, and discusses the possibility of their clinical application in neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mari Dezawa
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan.
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126
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Mori K. Future prospects of transplantation therapy for neurological diseases using adult bone marrow stromal cells. FUTURE NEUROLOGY 2006. [DOI: 10.2217/14796708.1.2.215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Bone marrow stromal cells (BMSCs) can differentiate into neuronal cell types as well as mesenchymal cell types. BMSCs possess three distinctive abilities: secretion of neurotrophic factors; differentiation into neurons, glia and Schwann cells; and migration throughout the CNS. Extensive preclinical studies of BMSC transplantation therapy have investigated the treatment of various neurological disorders. This review provides a concise overview of the mainly preclinical studies of transplantation therapy based on BMSCs derived from adult bone marrow. This highlights the three main characteristics that provide the potential for the treatment of neurological disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kentaro Mori
- Juntendo University, Department of Neurosurgery, Shizuoka Hospital, 1129 Nagaoka, Izunokuni, Shizuoka 410–2295, Japan
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Carvey PM, Zhao CH, Hendey B, Lum H, Trachtenberg J, Desai BS, Snyder J, Zhu YG, Ling ZD. 6-Hydroxydopamine-induced alterations in blood-brain barrier permeability. Eur J Neurosci 2006; 22:1158-68. [PMID: 16176358 DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2005.04281.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 163] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Vascular inflammation is well known for its ability to compromise the function of the blood--brain barrier (BBB). Whether inflammation on the parenchymal side of the barrier, such as that associated with Parkinson's-like dopamine (DA) neuron lesions, similarly disrupts BBB function, is unknown. We assessed BBB integrity by examining the leakage of FITC-labeled albumin or horseradish peroxidase from the vasculature into parenchyma in animals exposed to the DA neurotoxin 6-hydroxydopamine (6OHDA). Unilateral injections of 6OHDA into the striatum or the medial forebrain bundle produced increased leakage in the ipsilateral substantia nigra and striatum 10 and 34 days following 6OHDA. Microglia were markedly activated and DA neurons were reduced by the lesions. The areas of BBB leakage were associated with increased expression of P-glycoprotein and beta 3-integrin expression suggesting, respectively, a compensatory response to inflammation and possible angiogenesis. Behavioural studies revealed that domperidone, a DA antagonist that normally does not cross the BBB, attenuated apomorphine-induced stereotypic behaviour in animals with 6OHDA lesions. This suggests that drugs which normally have no effect in brain can enter following Parkinson-like lesions. These data suggest that the events associated with DA neuron loss compromise BBB function.
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Affiliation(s)
- P M Carvey
- Rush University Medical Center, Department of Pharmacology, Cohn 406, Chicago, IL 60612, USA.
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128
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Manganas LN, Maletic-Savatic M. Stem cell therapy for central nervous system demyelinating disease. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep 2005; 5:225-31. [PMID: 15865888 PMCID: PMC4031751 DOI: 10.1007/s11910-005-0050-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Recent advances in cell-based therapies for demyelinating central nervous system diseases have demonstrated the ability to restore damaged neuronal architecture and function. Demyelinated axons in patients with multiple sclerosis can spontaneously remyelinate over time; however, the rate and extent at which remyelination occurs is inadequate for complete recovery. Previous attempts aimed at regenerating myelin-forming cells have been successful but limited by the multifocal nature of the lesions and the inability to produce large numbers of myelin-producing cells in culture. Stem cell-based therapy can overcome these limitations to some extent and may prove useful in the future treatment of demyelinating diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louis N. Manganas
- Department of Neurology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794-8121, Tel: 631-444-8120, Fax:631-444-1474, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, 1 Bungtown Road, Cold Spring Harbor, NY 11724, Tel 516-367-6827, Fax 516-367-6805
| | - Mirjana Maletic-Savatic
- Department of Neurology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794-8121, Tel: 631-444-8120, Fax:631-444-1474, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, 1 Bungtown Road, Cold Spring Harbor, NY 11724, Tel 516-367-6827, Fax 516-367-6805
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