A predictive computational model of the dynamic 3D interphase yeast nucleus

From a melt of rings to chromosome territories: the role of topological constraints in genome folding

We review pro and contra of the hypothesis that generic polymer properties of topological constraints are behind many aspects of chromatin folding in eukaryotic cells. For that purpose, we review, first, recent theoretical and computational findings in polymer physics related to concentrated, topologically simple (unknotted and unlinked) chains or a system of chains. Second, we review recent experimental discoveries related to genome folding. Understanding in these fields is far from complete, but we show how looking at them in parallel sheds new light on both.

Centromere tethering confines chromosome domains

The organization of chromosomes into territories plays an important role in a wide range of cellular processes, including gene expression, transcription, and DNA repair. Current understanding has largely excluded the spatiotemporal dynamic fluctuations of the chromatin polymer. We combine in vivo chromatin motion analysis with mathematical modeling to elucidate the physical properties that underlie the formation and fluctuations of territories. Chromosome motion varies in predicted ways along the length of the chromosome, dependent on tethering at the centromere. Detachment of a tether upon inactivation of the centromere results in increased spatial mobility. A confined bead-spring chain tethered at both ends provides a mechanism to generate observed variations in local mobility as a function of distance from the tether. These predictions are realized in experimentally determined higher effective spring constants closer to the centromere. The dynamic fluctuations and territorial organization of chromosomes are, in part, dictated by tethering at the centromere.

Polymer modeling of the E. coli genome reveals the involvement of locus positioning and macrodomain structuring for the control of chromosome conformation and segregation

The mechanisms that control chromosome conformation and segregation in bacteria have not yet been elucidated. In Escherichia coli, the mere presence of an active process remains an open question. Here, we investigate the conformation and segregation pattern of the E. coli genome by performing numerical simulations on a polymer model of the chromosome. We analyze the roles of the intrinsic structuring of chromosomes and the forced localization of specific loci, which are observed in vivo. Specifically, we examine the segregation pattern of a chromosome that is divided into four structured macrodomains (MDs) and two non-structured regions. We find that strong osmotic-like organizational forces, which stem from the differential condensation levels of the chromosome regions, dictate the cellular disposition of the chromosome. Strikingly, the comparison of our in silico results with fluorescent imaging of the chromosome choreography in vivo reveals that in the presence of MDs the targeting of the origin and terminus regions to specific positions are sufficient to generate a segregation pattern that is indistinguishable from experimentally observed patterns.

High-throughput chromatin motion tracking in living yeast reveals the flexibility of the fiber throughout the genome

Chromosome dynamics are recognized to be intimately linked to genomic transactions, yet the physical principles governing spatial fluctuations of chromatin are still a matter of debate. Using high-throughput single-particle tracking, we recorded the movements of nine fluorescently labeled chromosome loci located on chromosomes III, IV, XII, and XIV of Saccharomyces cerevisiae over an extended temporal range spanning more than four orders of magnitude (10(-2)-10(3) sec). Spatial fluctuations appear to be characterized by an anomalous diffusive behavior, which is homogeneous in the time domain, for all sites analyzed. We show that this response is consistent with the Rouse polymer model, and we confirm the relevance of the model with Brownian dynamics simulations and the analysis of the statistical properties of the trajectories. Moreover, the analysis of the amplitude of fluctuations by the Rouse model shows that yeast chromatin is highly flexible, its persistence length being qualitatively estimated to <30 nm. Finally, we show that the Rouse model is also relevant to analyze chromosome motion in mutant cells depleted of proteins that bind to or assemble chromatin, and suggest that it provides a consistent framework to study chromatin dynamics. We discuss the implications of our findings for yeast genome architecture and for target search mechanisms in the nucleus.

Systematic characterization of the conformation and dynamics of budding yeast chromosome XII

Chromosomes architecture is viewed as a key component of gene regulation, but principles of chromosomal folding remain elusive. Here we used high-throughput live cell microscopy to characterize the conformation and dynamics of the longest chromosome of Saccharomyces cerevisiae (XII). Chromosome XII carries the ribosomal DNA (rDNA) that defines the nucleolus, a major hallmark of nuclear organization. We determined intranuclear positions of 15 loci distributed every ~100 kb along the chromosome, and investigated their motion over broad time scales (0.2-400 s). Loci positions and motions, except for the rDNA, were consistent with a computational model of chromosomes based on tethered polymers and with the Rouse model from polymer physics, respectively. Furthermore, rapamycin-dependent transcriptional reprogramming of the genome only marginally affected the chromosome XII internal large-scale organization. Our comprehensive investigation of chromosome XII is thus in agreement with recent studies and models in which long-range architecture is largely determined by the physical principles of tethered polymers and volume exclusion.

How to build a yeast nucleus

Biological functions including gene expression and DNA repair are affected by the 3D architecture of the genome, but the underlying mechanisms are still unknown. Notably, it remains unclear to what extent nuclear architecture is driven by generic physical properties of polymers or by specific factors such as proteins binding particular DNA sequences. The budding yeast nucleus has been intensely studied by imaging and biochemical techniques, resulting in a large quantitative data set on locus positions and DNA contact frequencies. We recently described a quantitative model of the interphase yeast nucleus in which chromosomes are represented as passively moving polymer chains. This model ignores the DNA sequence information except for specific constraints at the centromeres, telomeres, and the ribosomal DNA (rDNA). Despite its simplicity, the model accounts for a large majority of experimental data, including absolute and relative locus positions and contact frequency patterns at chromosomal and subchromosomal scales. Here, we also illustrate the model's ability to reproduce observed features of chromatin movements. Our results strongly suggest that the dynamic large-scale architecture of the yeast nucleus is dominated by statistical properties of randomly moving polymers with a few sequence-specific constraints, rather than by a large number of DNA-specific factors or epigenetic modifications. In addition, we show that our model accounts for recently measured variations in homologous recombination efficiency, illustrating its potential for quantitatively understanding functional consequences of nuclear architecture.

Something silent this way forms: the functional organization of the repressive nuclear compartment

The repressive compartment of the nucleus is comprised primarily of telomeric and centromeric regions, the silent portion of ribosomal RNA genes, the majority of transposable element repeats, and facultatively repressed genes specific to different cell types. This compartment localizes into three main regions: the peripheral heterochromatin, perinucleolar heterochromatin, and pericentromeric heterochromatin. Both chromatin remodeling proteins and transcription of noncoding RNAs are involved in maintenance of repression in these compartments. Global reorganization of the repressive compartment occurs at each cell division, during early development, and during terminal differentiation. Differential action of chromatin remodeling complexes and boundary element looping activities are involved in mediating these organizational changes. We discuss the evidence that heterochromatin formation and compartmentalization may drive nuclear organization.

Effect of nuclear architecture on the efficiency of double-strand break repair

The most dangerous insults to the genome's integrity are those that break both strands of the DNA. Double-strand breaks can be repaired by homologous recombination; in this conserved mechanism, a global genomic homology search finds sequences similar to those near the break, and uses them as a template for DNA synthesis and ligation. Chromosomes occupy restricted territories within the nucleus. We show that yeast genomic regions whose nuclear territories overlap recombine more efficiently than sequences located in spatially distant territories. Tethering of telomeres and centromeres reduces the efficiency of recombination between distant genomic loci, lowering the chances of non-allelic recombination. Our results challenge present models that posit an active scanning of the whole nuclear volume by the broken chromosomal end; they demonstrate that the search for homology is a limiting step in homologous recombination, and emphasize the importance of nuclear organization in genome maintenance.

Spatial telomere organization and clustering in yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae nucleus is generated by a random dynamics of aggregation-dissociation

The 32 telomeres of budding yeast form clusters, yet whether clusters are due to random localization or telomeric interactions is unclear. Data from live-cell imaging are compared with a biophysical model of telomere dynamics. Direct molecular interaction between telomeres is the key parameter that regulates telomere clustering.

Spatial and temporal behavior of chromosomes and their regulatory proteins is a key control mechanism in genomic function. This is exemplified by the clustering of the 32 budding yeast telomeres that form foci in which silencing factors concentrate. To uncover the determinants of telomere distribution, we compare live-cell imaging with a stochastic model of telomere dynamics that we developed. We show that random encounters alone are inadequate to produce the clustering observed in vivo. In contrast, telomere dynamics observed in vivo in both haploid and diploid cells follows a process of dissociation–aggregation. We determine the time that two telomeres spend in the same cluster for the telomere distribution observed in cells expressing different levels of the silencing factor Sir3 protein, limiting for telomere clustering. We conclude that telomere clusters, their dynamics, and their nuclear distribution result from random motion, aggregation, and dissociation of telomeric regions, specifically determined by the amount of Sir3.

Nuclear organization in the nematode C. elegans

With its invariant cell lineage, easy genetics and small genome, the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans has emerged as one of the prime models in developmental biology over the last 50 years. Surprisingly however, until a decade ago very little was known about nuclear organization in worms, even though it is an ideal model system to explore the link between nuclear organization and cell fate determination. Here, we review the latest findings that exploit the repertoire of genetic tools developed in worms, leading to the identification of important sequences and signals governing the changes in chromatin tridimensional architecture. We also highlight parallels and differences to other model systems.

Functional implications of genome topology

Although genomes are defined by their sequence, the linear arrangement of nucleotides is only their most basic feature. A fundamental property of genomes is their topological organization in three-dimensional space in the intact cell nucleus. The application of imaging methods and genome-wide biochemical approaches, combined with functional data, is revealing the precise nature of genome topology and its regulatory functions in gene expression and genome maintenance. The emerging picture is one of extensive self-enforcing feedback between activity and spatial organization of the genome, suggestive of a self-organizing and self-perpetuating system that uses epigenetic dynamics to regulate genome function in response to regulatory cues and to propagate cell-fate memory.

The 3D organization of the yeast genome correlates with co-expression and reflects functional relations between genes

The spatial organization of eukaryotic genomes is thought to play an important role in regulating gene expression. The recent advances in experimental methods including chromatin capture techniques, as well as the large amounts of accumulated gene expression data allow studying the relationship between spatial organization of the genome and co-expression of protein-coding genes. To analyse this genome-wide relationship at a single gene resolution, we combined the interchromosomal DNA contacts in the yeast genome measured by Duan et al. with a comprehensive collection of 1,496 gene expression datasets. We find significant enhancement of co-expression among genes with contact links. The co-expression is most prominent when two gene loci fall within 1,000 base pairs from the observed contact. We also demonstrate an enrichment of inter-chromosomal links between functionally related genes, which suggests that the non random nature of the genome organization serves to facilitate coordinated transcription in groups of genes.

Building silent compartments at the nuclear periphery: a recurrent theme

In eukaryotes, the genetic material is stored in the nucleus, which is enclosed in a double lipid bilayer, the nuclear envelope (NE). It protects the genome from physical stress and separates it from the rest of the cell. On top of this physical function, growing evidence shows that the nuclear periphery contributes to the 3D organization of the genome. In turn, tridimensional organization of chromatin in the nuclear space influences genome expression. Here we review recent findings on the function of this physical barrier in gene repression and latest models on how silent subnuclear compartments at the NE are built in yeast as well as in the nematode C. elegans and mammalian cells; trying to draw parallels between the three systems.