Fra-1 a target for cancer prevention or intervention

Interleukin-13 receptor alpha 2, EphA2, and Fos-related antigen 1 as molecular denominators of high-grade astrocytomas and specific targets for combinatorial therapy

PURPOSE

We investigated the expression of interleukin-13 receptor alpha2 (IL-13R alpha 2), EphA2, and Fos-related antigen 1 (Fra-1) in astrocytomas and normal brain. We sought to document whether the expression of the three factors changed with progression to higher grade malignancy and whether two or three targets in combination might be sufficient to target all patients with high-grade astrocytomas.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Immunohistochemistry was done for IL-13R alpha 2, EphA2, and Fra-1 using human brain tumor tissue microarrays containing 30 specimens of WHO grades II and III astrocytomas, 46 glioblastoma multiformes (GBM), and 9 normal brain samples. Sections were scored based on frequency and intensity of expression. Western blotting was done for all three markers using GBM tumor specimens and xenograft cell lines. Two cytotoxins, IL-13.E13K.PE38QQR and ephrinA1-PE38QQR, which target IL-13R alpha 2 or EphA2, respectively, were tested for cytotoxicity against human GBM primary explant cells and established cells.

RESULTS

Expression of all three proteins was significantly higher in GBM compared with normal brain, low-grade, and anaplastic astrocytomas. Greater than 95% of GBM overexpressed at least two of the three markers. Importantly, every GBM overexpressed at least one marker. Human GBM primary explant cells and cell lines were potently killed by IL-13.E13K.PE38QQR and ephrinA1-PE38QQR, in accordance with their level of expression of IL-13R alpha 2 and EphA2, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

IL-13R alpha 2, EphA2, and Fra-1 are attractive therapeutic targets representing molecular denominators of high-grade astrocytomas. One hundred percent of GBM tumors overexpress at least one of these proteins, providing the basis for rational combinatorial targeted therapies/diagnostics suitable for all patients with this disease.

The PIAS-like protein Zimp10 is essential for embryonic viability and proper vascular development

Members of the PIAS (for protein inhibitor of activated STAT) family play critical roles in modulating the activity of a variety of transcriptional regulators. Zimp10, a novel PIAS-like protein, is a transcriptional coregulator and may be involved in the modification of chromatin through interactions with the SWI/SNF chromatin-remodeling complexes. Here, we investigate the biological role of Zimp10 in zimp10-deficient mice. Homozygosity for the Zimp10-targeted allele resulted in developmental arrest at approximately embryonic day 10.5. Analysis of knockout embryos revealed severe defects in the reorganization of the yolk sac vascular plexus. No significant abnormality in hematopoietic potential was observed in zimp10 null mice. Microarray and quantified reverse transcription-PCR analyses showed that the expression of the Fos family member Fra-1, which is involved in extraembryonic vascular development, was reduced in yolk sac tissues of zimp10 null embryos. Using fra-1 promoter/reporter constructs, we further demonstrate the regulatory role of Zimp10 on the transcription of Fra-1. This study provides evidence to demonstrate a crucial role for Zimp10 in vasculogenesis.

Heterodimerization with Jun family members regulates c-Fos nucleocytoplasmic traffic

c-Fos proto-oncoprotein forms AP-1 transcription complexes with heterodimerization partners such as c-Jun, JunB, and JunD. Thereby, it controls essential cell functions and exerts tumorigenic actions. The dynamics of c-Fos intracellular distribution is poorly understood. Hence, we have combined genetic, cell biology, and microscopic approaches to investigate this issue. In addition to a previously characterized basic nuclear localization signal (NLS) located within the central DNA-binding domain, we identified a second NLS within the c-Fos N-terminal region. This NLS is non-classic and its activity depends on transportin 1 in vivo. Under conditions of prominent nuclear localization, c-Fos can undergo nucleocytoplasmic shuttling through an active Crm-1 exportin-independent mechanism. Dimerization with the Jun proteins inhibits c-Fos nuclear exit. The strongest effect is observed with c-Jun probably in accordance with the relative stabilities of the different c-Fos:Jun dimers. Retrotransport inhibition is not caused by binding of dimers to DNA and, therefore, is not induced by indirect effects linked to activation of c-Fos target genes. Monomeric, but not dimeric, Jun proteins also shuttle actively. Thus, our work unveils a novel regulation operating on AP-1 by demonstrating that dimerization is crucial, not only for active transcription complex formation, but also for keeping them in the compartment where they exert their transcriptional function.

Ubiquitin-independent- versus ubiquitin-dependent proteasomal degradation of the c-Fos and Fra-1 transcription factors: is there a unique answer?

The Fos family of transcription factors comprises c-Fos, Fra-1, Fra-2 and FosB, which are all intrinsically unstable proteins. Fos proteins heterodimerize with a variety of other transcription factors to control genes encoding key cell regulators. Their best known partners are the Jun family proteins (c-Jun, JunB, and JunD). At the cellular level, Fos-involving dimers control proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis and responses to environmental cues. At the organism level, they play paramount parts in organogenesis, immune responses and cognitive functions, among others. fos family genes are subjected to exquisite, complex and intermingled transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulations, which are necessary to avoid pathological effects. In particular, the Fos proteins undergo to numerous post-translational modifications, such as phosphorylations and sumoylation, regulating their transcriptional activity, their subcellular localization and their turnover. The mechanisms whereby c-Fos and Fra-1 are degraded have been studied in detail. Contrasting with the classical scenario, according to which most unstable key cell regulators are hydrolyzed by the proteasome after conjugation of polyubiquitin chains, the bulk of c-Fos and Fra-1 can be hydrolyzed independently of any prior ubiquitylation in different situations. c-Fos and Fra-1 share a common destabilizing domain whose primary sequence is conserved in Fra-2 and FosB, suggesting that similar breakdown mechanisms might be at play in the latter two proteins. However, a database search indicates that this domain is not found in any other protein, suggesting that the mechanisms underlying Fos protein destruction may be specific to this family. Interestingly, under particular conditions, a fraction of cytoplasmic c-Fos is ubiquitylated, leading to faster turnover. This poses the question of the multiplicity of degradation pathways that can target the same substrate depending on its activation state, its protein partnership and/or its intracellular localization. This issue is discussed here together with the, thus far, overlooked roles of the various proteasomal complexes found in all cells.

The activator protein-1 transcription factor in respiratory epithelium carcinogenesis

Respiratory epithelium cancers are the leading cause of cancer-related death worldwide. The multistep natural history of carcinogenesis can be considered as a gradual accumulation of genetic and epigenetic aberrations, resulting in the deregulation of cellular homeostasis. Growing evidence suggests that cross-talk between membrane and nuclear receptor signaling pathways along with the activator protein-1 (AP-1) cascade and its cofactor network represent a pivotal molecular circuitry participating directly or indirectly in respiratory epithelium carcinogenesis. The crucial role of AP-1 transcription factor renders it an appealing target of future nuclear-directed anticancer therapeutic and chemoprevention approaches. In the present review, we will summarize the current knowledge regarding the implication of AP-1 proteins in respiratory epithelium carcinogenesis, highlight the ongoing research, and consider the future perspectives of their potential therapeutic interest.

Ubiquitin-independent proteasomal degradation of Fra-1 is antagonized by Erk1/2 pathway-mediated phosphorylation of a unique C-terminal destabilizer

Fra-1, a transcription factor that is phylogenetically and functionally related to the proto-oncoprotein c-Fos, controls many essential cell functions. It is expressed in many cell types, albeit with differing kinetics and abundances. In cells reentering the cell cycle, Fra-1 expression is transiently stimulated albeit later than that of c-Fos and for a longer time. Moreover, Fra-1 overexpression is found in cancer cells displaying high Erk1/2 activity and has been linked to tumorigenesis. One crucial point of regulation of Fra-1 levels is controlled protein degradation, the mechanism of which remains poorly characterized. Here, we have combined genetic, pharmacological, and signaling studies to investigate this process in nontransformed cells and to elucidate how it is altered in cancer cells. We report that the intrinsic instability of Fra-1 depends on a single destabilizer contained within the C-terminal 30 to 40 amino acids. Two serines therein, S252 and S265, are phosphorylated by kinases of the Erk1/2 pathway, which compromises protein destruction upon both normal physiological induction and tumorigenic constitutive activation of this cascade. Our data also indicate that Fra-1, like c-Fos, belongs to a small group of proteins that may, under certain circumstances, undergo ubiquitin-independent degradation by the proteasome. Our work reveals both similitudes and differences between Fra-1 and c-Fos degradation mechanisms. In particular, the presence of a single destabilizer within Fra-1, instead of two that are differentially regulated in c-Fos, explains the much faster turnover of the latter when cells traverse the G(0)/G(1)-to-S-phase transition. Finally, our study offers further insights into the signaling-regulated expression of the other Fos family proteins.