101
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Schmitt ND, Agar JN. Parsing disease-relevant protein modifications from epiphenomena: perspective on the structural basis of SOD1-mediated ALS. JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY : JMS 2017; 52:480-491. [PMID: 28558143 PMCID: PMC6002871 DOI: 10.1002/jms.3953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2017] [Revised: 05/23/2017] [Accepted: 05/25/2017] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Conformational change and modification of proteins are involved in many cellular functions. However, they can also have adverse effects that are implicated in numerous diseases. How structural change promotes disease is generally not well-understood. This perspective illustrates how mass spectrometry (MS), followed by toxicological and epidemiological validation, can discover disease-relevant structural changes and therapeutic strategies. We (with our collaborators) set out to characterize the structural and toxic consequences of disease-associated mutations and post-translational modifications (PTMs) of the cytosolic antioxidant protein Cu/Zn-superoxide dismutase (SOD1). Previous genetic studies discovered >180 different mutations in the SOD1 gene that caused familial (inherited) amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (fALS). Using hydrogen-deuterium exchange with mass spectrometry, we determined that diverse disease-associated SOD1 mutations cause a common structural defect - perturbation of the SOD1 electrostatic loop. X-ray crystallographic studies had demonstrated that this leads to protein aggregation through a specific interaction between the electrostatic loop and an exposed beta-barrel edge strand. Using epidemiology methods, we then determined that decreased SOD1 stability and increased protein aggregation are powerful risk factors for fALS progression, with a combined hazard ratio > 300 (for comparison, a lifetime of smoking is associated with a hazard ratio of ~15 for lung cancer). The resulting structural model of fALS etiology supported the hypothesis that some sporadic ALS (sALS, ~80% of ALS is not associated with a gene defect) could be caused by post-translational protein modification of wild-type SOD1. We developed immunocapture antibodies and high sensitivity top-down MS methods and characterized PTMs of wild-type SOD1 using human tissue samples. Using global hydrogen-deuterium exchange, X-ray crystallography and neurotoxicology, we then characterized toxic and protective subsets of SOD1 PTMs. To cap this perspective, we present proof-of-concept that post-translational modification can cause disease. We show that numerous mutations (N➔D; Q➔E), which result in the same chemical structure as the PTM deamidation, cause multiple diseases. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas D. Schmitt
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA
- Barnett Institute of Chemical and Biological Analysis, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Jeffrey N. Agar
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA
- Barnett Institute of Chemical and Biological Analysis, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA
- Correspondence Northeastern University, 360 Huntington Avenue, 140 The Fenway, Room 417, Boston, MA 02115
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102
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Insights into the mechanisms of copper dyshomeostasis in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Expert Rev Mol Med 2017; 19:e7. [PMID: 28597807 DOI: 10.1017/erm.2017.9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a severe neuromuscular disease characterised by a progressive loss of motor neurons that usually results in paralysis and death within 2 to 5 years after disease onset. The pathophysiological mechanisms involved in ALS remain largely unknown and to date there is no effective treatment for this disease. Here, we review clinical and experimental evidence suggesting that dysregulation of copper homeostasis in the central nervous system is a crucial underlying event in motor neuron degeneration and ALS pathophysiology. We also review and discuss novel approaches seeking to target copper delivery to treat ALS. These novel approaches may be clinically relevant not only for ALS but also for other neurological disorders with abnormal copper homeostasis, such as Parkinson's, Huntington's and Prion diseases.
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103
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Dharmadasa T, Henderson RD, Talman PS, Macdonell RAL, Mathers S, Schultz DW, Needham M, Zoing M, Vucic S, Kiernan MC. Motor neurone disease: progress and challenges. Med J Aust 2017; 206:357-362. [DOI: 10.5694/mja16.01063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2016] [Accepted: 01/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Margaret Zoing
- Brain and Mind Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW
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104
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Martinez A, Palomo Ruiz MDV, Perez DI, Gil C. Drugs in clinical development for the treatment of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2017; 26:403-414. [PMID: 28277881 DOI: 10.1080/13543784.2017.1302426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal motor neuron progressive disorder for which no treatment exists to date. However, there are other investigational drugs and therapies currently under clinical development may offer hope in the near future. Areas covered: We have reviewed all the ALS ongoing clinical trials (until November 2016) and collected in Clinicaltrials.gov or EudraCT. We have described them in a comprehensive way and have grouped them in the following sections: biomarkers, biological therapies, cell therapy, drug repurposing and new drugs. Expert opinion: Despite multiple obstacles that explain the absence of effective drugs for the treatment of ALS, joint efforts among patient's associations, public and private sectors have fueled innovative research in this field, resulting in several compounds that are in the late stages of clinical trials. Drug repositioning is also playing an important role, having achieved the approval of some orphan drug applications, in late phases of clinical development. Endaravone has been recently approved in Japan and is pending in USA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Martinez
- a IPSBB Unit , Centro de Investigaciones Biologicas-CSIC , Madrid , Spain
| | | | - Daniel I Perez
- a IPSBB Unit , Centro de Investigaciones Biologicas-CSIC , Madrid , Spain
| | - Carmen Gil
- a IPSBB Unit , Centro de Investigaciones Biologicas-CSIC , Madrid , Spain
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105
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Vieira FG, Hatzipetros T, Thompson K, Moreno AJ, Kidd JD, Tassinari VR, Levine B, Perrin S, Gill A. CuATSM efficacy is independently replicated in a SOD1 mouse model of ALS while unmetallated ATSM therapy fails to reveal benefits. IBRO Rep 2017; 2:47-53. [PMID: 30135932 PMCID: PMC6084867 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibror.2017.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2017] [Revised: 03/08/2017] [Accepted: 03/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
A copper chelator known as diacetylbis(N(4)-methylthiosemicarbazonato) copper II (CuATSM), has been reported to be efficacious in multiple transgenic SOD1 models of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), a fatal neurodegenerative disorder affecting motor neurons. Here we report that we also observed CuATSM efficacy on disease onset and progression in a standardized litter-matched and gender-balanced efficacy study using B6SJL-SOD1G93A/1Gur mice. We also report improved survival trends with CuATSM treatment. In addition, we report a lack of efficacy by unmetallated ATSM in the same model using the same standardized study design. These results add to existing evidence supporting an efficacious role for copper delivery using chaperone molecules in mouse models of ALS. CuATSM administration slows disease onset and progression in high copy SOD1 mice. Signs of CuATSM efficacy are more pronounced in male SOD1 mice than in female SOD1 mice. Unmetallated ATSM administration reveals no detectable effects on disease progression in high copy SOD1 mice.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Alan Gill
- ALS Therapy Development Institute, USA
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106
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Pickart L, Vasquez-Soltero JM, Margolina A. The Effect of the Human Peptide GHK on Gene Expression Relevant to Nervous System Function and Cognitive Decline. Brain Sci 2017; 7:E20. [PMID: 28212278 PMCID: PMC5332963 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci7020020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2016] [Revised: 02/07/2017] [Accepted: 02/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurodegeneration, the progressive death of neurons, loss of brain function, and cognitive decline is an increasing problem for senior populations. Its causes are poorly understood and therapies are largely ineffective. Neurons, with high energy and oxygen requirements, are especially vulnerable to detrimental factors, including age-related dysregulation of biochemical pathways caused by altered expression of multiple genes. GHK (glycyl-l-histidyl-l-lysine) is a human copper-binding peptide with biological actions that appear to counter aging-associated diseases and conditions. GHK, which declines with age, has health promoting effects on many tissues such as chondrocytes, liver cells and human fibroblasts, improves wound healing and tissue regeneration (skin, hair follicles, stomach and intestinal linings, boney tissue), increases collagen, decorin, angiogenesis, and nerve outgrowth, possesses anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-pain and anti-anxiety effects, increases cellular stemness and the secretion of trophic factors by mesenchymal stem cells. Studies using the Broad Institute Connectivity Map show that GHK peptide modulates expression of multiple genes, resetting pathological gene expression patterns back to health. GHK has been recommended as a treatment for metastatic cancer, Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease, inflammation, acute lung injury, activating stem cells, pain, and anxiety. Here, we present GHK's effects on gene expression relevant to the nervous system health and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Loren Pickart
- Research & Development Department, Skin Biology, 4122 Factoria Boulevard SE Suite No. 200 Bellevue, WA 98006, USA.
| | | | - Anna Margolina
- Research & Development Department, Skin Biology, 4122 Factoria Boulevard SE Suite No. 200 Bellevue, WA 98006, USA.
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107
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Cu II(atsm) improves the neurological phenotype and survival of SOD1 G93A mice and selectively increases enzymatically active SOD1 in the spinal cord. Sci Rep 2017; 7:42292. [PMID: 28205575 PMCID: PMC5304223 DOI: 10.1038/srep42292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2016] [Accepted: 01/09/2017] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Ubiquitous expression of mutant Cu/Zn-superoxide dismutase (SOD1) selectively affects motor neurons in the central nervous system (CNS), causing the adult-onset degenerative disease amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). The CNS-specific impact of ubiquitous mutant SOD1 expression is recapitulated in transgenic mouse models of the disease. Here we present outcomes for the metallo-complex CuII(atsm) tested for therapeutic efficacy in mice expressing SOD1G93A on a mixed genetic background. Oral administration of CuII(atsm) delayed the onset of neurological symptoms, improved locomotive capacity and extended overall survival. Although the ALS-like phenotype of SOD1G93A mice is instigated by expression of the mutant SOD1, we show the improved phenotype of the CuII(atsm)-treated animals involves an increase in mature mutant SOD1 protein in the disease-affected spinal cord, where concomitant increases in copper and SOD1 activity are also evident. In contrast to these effects in the spinal cord, treating with CuII(atsm) had no effect in liver on either mutant SOD1 protein levels or its activity, indicating a CNS-selective SOD1 response to the drug. These data provide support for CuII(atsm) as a treatment option for ALS as well as insight to the CNS-selective effects of mutant SOD1.
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108
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Matamala JM, Kiernan MC. Natural history and the dawning of a new era for familial ALS. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2017; 88:95-96. [PMID: 27371722 DOI: 10.1136/jnnp-2016-313898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2016] [Accepted: 06/15/2016] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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109
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Mobile zinc increases rapidly in the retina after optic nerve injury and regulates ganglion cell survival and optic nerve regeneration. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2017; 114:E209-E218. [PMID: 28049831 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1616811114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Retinal ganglion cells (RGCs), the projection neurons of the eye, cannot regenerate their axons once the optic nerve has been injured and soon begin to die. Whereas RGC death and regenerative failure are widely viewed as being cell-autonomous or influenced by various types of glia, we report here that the dysregulation of mobile zinc (Zn2+) in retinal interneurons is a primary factor. Within an hour after the optic nerve is injured, Zn2+ increases several-fold in retinal amacrine cell processes and continues to rise over the first day, then transfers slowly to RGCs via vesicular release. Zn2+ accumulation in amacrine cell processes involves the Zn2+ transporter protein ZnT-3, and deletion of slc30a3, the gene encoding ZnT-3, promotes RGC survival and axon regeneration. Intravitreal injection of Zn2+ chelators enables many RGCs to survive for months after nerve injury and regenerate axons, and enhances the prosurvival and regenerative effects of deleting the gene for phosphatase and tensin homolog (pten). Importantly, the therapeutic window for Zn2+ chelation extends for several days after nerve injury. These results show that retinal Zn2+ dysregulation is a major factor limiting the survival and regenerative capacity of injured RGCs, and point to Zn2+ chelation as a strategy to promote long-term RGC protection and enhance axon regeneration.
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110
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Positron emission tomography in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: Towards targeting of molecular pathological hallmarks. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2016; 44:533-547. [DOI: 10.1007/s00259-016-3587-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2016] [Accepted: 11/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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111
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Ayers JI, McMahon B, Gill S, Lelie HL, Fromholt S, Brown H, Valentine JS, Whitelegge JP, Borchelt DR. Relationship between mutant Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase 1 maturation and inclusion formation in cell models. J Neurochem 2016; 140:140-150. [PMID: 27727458 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.13864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2016] [Revised: 09/23/2016] [Accepted: 09/29/2016] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
A common property of Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1), harboring mutations associated with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, is a high propensity to misfold and form abnormal aggregates. The aggregation of mutant SOD1 has been demonstrated in vitro, with purified proteins, in mouse models, in human tissues, and in cultured cell models. In vitro translation studies have determined that SOD1 with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis mutations is slower to mature, and thus perhaps vulnerable to off-pathway folding that could generate aggregates. The aggregation of mutant SOD1 in living cells can be monitored by tagging the protein with fluorescent fluorophores. In this study, we have taken advantage of the Dendra2 fluorophore technology in which excitation can be used to switch the output color from green to red, thereby clearly creating a time stamp that distinguishes pre-existing and newly made proteins. In cells that transiently over-express the Ala 4 to Val variant of SOD1-Dendra2, we observed that newly made mutant SOD1 was rapidly captured by pathologic intracellular inclusions. In cell models of mutant SOD1 aggregation over-expressing untagged A4V-SOD1, we observed that immature forms of the protein, lacking a Cu co-factor and a normal intramolecular disulfide, persist for extended periods. Our findings fit with a model in which immature forms of mutant A4V-SOD1, including newly made protein, are prone to misfolding and aggregation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob I Ayers
- Department of Neuroscience, Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease, McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Benjamin McMahon
- Department of Neuroscience, Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease, McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Sabrina Gill
- Department of Neuroscience, Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease, McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Herman L Lelie
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, UCLA, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Susan Fromholt
- Department of Neuroscience, Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease, McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Hilda Brown
- Department of Neuroscience, Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease, McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | | | - Julian P Whitelegge
- The Pasarow Mass Spectrometry Laboratory, NPI-Semel Institute, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - David R Borchelt
- Department of Neuroscience, Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease, McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
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112
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ALSUntangled No. 36: Accilion. Amyotroph Lateral Scler Frontotemporal Degener 2016; 18:142-147. [PMID: 27685025 DOI: 10.1080/21678421.2016.1215400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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113
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Metals in Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s Disease: Relevance to Dementia with Lewy Bodies. J Mol Neurosci 2016; 60:279-288. [DOI: 10.1007/s12031-016-0809-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2016] [Accepted: 07/28/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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114
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Wright GSA, Antonyuk SV, Hasnain SS. A faulty interaction between SOD1 and hCCS in neurodegenerative disease. Sci Rep 2016; 6:27691. [PMID: 27282955 PMCID: PMC4901319 DOI: 10.1038/srep27691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2016] [Accepted: 05/19/2016] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
A proportion of Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) cases result from impaired mutant superoxide dismutase-1 (SOD1) maturation. The copper chaperone for SOD1 (hCCS) forms a transient complex with SOD1 and catalyses the final stages of its maturation. We find that a neurodegenerative disease-associated hCCS mutation abrogates the interaction with SOD1 by inhibiting hCCS zinc binding. Analogously, SOD1 zinc loss has a detrimental effect on the formation, structure and disassociation of the hCCS-SOD1 heterodimer. This suggests that hCCS functionality is impaired by ALS mutations that reduce SOD1 zinc affinity. Furthermore, stabilization of wild-type SOD1 by chemical modification including cisplatination, inhibits complex formation. We hypothesize that drug molecules designed to stabilize ALS SOD1 mutants that also target the wild-type form will lead to characteristics common in SOD1 knock-outs. Our work demonstrates the applicability of chromatographic SAXS when studying biomolecules predisposed to aggregation or dissociation; attributes frequently reported for complexes involved in neurodegenerative disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gareth S. A. Wright
- Molecular Biophysics Group, Institute of Integrative Biology, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, University of Liverpool, UK
| | - Svetlana V. Antonyuk
- Molecular Biophysics Group, Institute of Integrative Biology, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, University of Liverpool, UK
| | - S. Samar Hasnain
- Molecular Biophysics Group, Institute of Integrative Biology, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, University of Liverpool, UK
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115
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Moderate modulation of disease in the G93A model of ALS by the compound 2-(2-hydroxyphenyl)-benzoxazole (HBX). Neurosci Lett 2016; 624:1-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2016.04.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2015] [Revised: 04/14/2016] [Accepted: 04/15/2016] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
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116
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Copper Homeostasis as a Therapeutic Target in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis with SOD1 Mutations. Int J Mol Sci 2016; 17:ijms17050636. [PMID: 27136532 PMCID: PMC4881462 DOI: 10.3390/ijms17050636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2016] [Revised: 04/03/2016] [Accepted: 04/22/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a lethal neurodegenerative disease affecting both upper and lower motor neurons, and currently, there is no cure or effective treatment. Mutations in a gene encoding a ubiquitous antioxidant enzyme, Cu,Zn-superoxide dismutase (SOD1), have been first identified as a cause of familial forms of ALS. It is widely accepted that mutant SOD1 proteins cause the disease through a gain in toxicity but not through a loss of its physiological function. SOD1 is a major copper-binding protein and regulates copper homeostasis in the cell; therefore, a toxicity of mutant SOD1 could arise from the disruption of copper homeostasis. In this review, we will briefly review recent studies implying roles of copper homeostasis in the pathogenesis of SOD1-ALS and highlight the therapeutic interventions focusing on pharmacological as well as genetic regulations of copper homeostasis to modify the pathological process in SOD1-ALS.
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117
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Hilton JB, White AR, Crouch PJ. Endogenous Cu in the central nervous system fails to satiate the elevated requirement for Cu in a mutant SOD1 mouse model of ALS. Metallomics 2016; 8:1002-11. [DOI: 10.1039/c6mt00099a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
It is unclear why ubiquitous expression of mutant SOD1 selectively affects the central nervous system in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Here we hypothesise that the central nervous system is primarily affected because, unlike other tissues, it has relatively limited capacity to satiate an increased requirement for Cu.
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Affiliation(s)
- J. B. Hilton
- Department of Pathology
- the University of Melbourne
- Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - A. R. White
- Department of Pathology
- the University of Melbourne
- Victoria 3010, Australia
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health
- the University of Melbourne
| | - P. J. Crouch
- Department of Pathology
- the University of Melbourne
- Victoria 3010, Australia
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health
- the University of Melbourne
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