Plant-derived exosomal microRNAs inhibit lung inflammation induced by exosomes SARS-CoV-2 Nsp12

Nanotechnological interventions of the microbiome as a next-generation antimicrobial therapy

The rise of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) impacts public health due to the diminished potency of existing antibiotics. The microbiome plays an important role in the host's immune system activity and shows the history of exposure to antimicrobials and its manipulation in combating antimicrobial resistance. Advancements in gene technologies, DNA sequencing, and computational biology have emerged as powerful platforms to better understand the relationship between animals and microorganisms (MOs). The past few years have witnessed an increase in the use of nanotechnology, both in industry and in academia, as tools to tackle antimicrobial resistance. New strategies of microbiome manipulation have been developed, such as the use of prebiotics, probiotics, peptides, antibodies, an appropriate diet, phage therapy, and the use of various nanotechnological techniques. Owing to the research outcomes, targeted delivery of antimicrobials with some modifications with nanoparticles can lead to the destruction of resistant microbial cells. In addition, nanoparticles have been studied for their potential antimicrobial effects both in vitro and in vivo. In this review, we highlight key opportunistic areas for applying nanotechnologies with the aim of manipulating the microbiome for the treatment of antimicrobial resistance. Besides providing a detailed review on various nanomaterials, technologies, opportunities, technical needs, and potential approaches for the manipulation of the microbiome to address these challenges, we discuss future challenges and our perspective.

Tailored Extracellular Vesicles: Novel Tool for Tissue Regeneration

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) play an essential part in multiple pathophysiological processes including tissue injury and regeneration because of their inherent characteristics of small size, low immunogenicity and toxicity, and capability of carrying a variety of bioactive molecules and mediating intercellular communication. Nevertheless, accumulating studies have shown that the application of EVs faces many challenges such as insufficient therapeutic efficacy, a lack of targeting capability, low yield, and rapid clearance from the body. It is known that EVs can be engineered, modified, and designed to encapsulate therapeutic cargos like proteins, peptides, nucleic acids, and drugs to improve their therapeutic efficacy. Targeted peptides, antibodies, aptamers, magnetic nanoparticles, and proteins are introduced to modify various cell-derived EVs for increasing targeting ability. In addition, extracellular vesicle mimetics (EMs) and self-assembly EV-mimicking nanocomplex are applied to improve production and simplify EV purification process. The combination of EVs with biomaterials like hydrogel, and scaffolds dressing endows EVs with long-term therapeutic efficacy and synergistically enhanced regenerative outcome. Thus, we will summarize recent developments of EV modification strategies for more extraordinary regenerative effect in various tissue injury repair. Subsequently, opportunities and challenges of promoting the clinical application of engineered EVs will be discussed.

Emergence of Edible Plant-Derived Nanovesicles as Functional Food Components and Nanocarriers for Therapeutics Delivery: Potentials in Human Health and Disease

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are a highly heterogeneous population of membranous particles that are secreted by almost all types of cells across different domains of life, including plants. In recent years, studies on plant-derived nanovesicles (PDNVs) showed that they could modulate metabolic reactions of the recipient cells, affecting (patho)physiology with health benefits in a trans-kingdom manner. In addition to its bioactivity, PDNV has advantages over conventional nanocarriers, making its application promising for therapeutics delivery. Here, we discuss the characteristics of PDNV and highlight up-to-date pre-clinical and clinical evidence, focusing on therapeutic application.

The Emerging Role of Plant-Derived Exosomes-Like Nanoparticles in Immune Regulation and Periodontitis Treatment

Periodontitis is an infectious oral disease, which leads to the destruction of periodontal tissues and tooth loss. Although the treatment of periodontitis has improved recently, the effective treatment of periodontitis and the periodontitis-affected periodontal tissues is still a challenge. Therefore, it is urgent to explore new therapeutic strategies for periodontitis. Natural products show anti-microbial, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant and bone protective effects to periodontitis and most of these natural products are safe and cost-effective. Among these, the plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (PELNs), a type of natural nanocarriers repleted with lipids, proteins, RNAs, and other active molecules, show the ability to enter mammalian cells and regulate cellular activities. Reports from the literature indicate the great potential of PELNs in the regulation of immune functions, inflammation, microbiome, and tissue regeneration. Moreover, PELNs can also be used as drug carriers to enhance drug stability and cellular uptake in vivo. Since regulation of immune function, inflammation, microbiome, and tissue regeneration are the key phenomena usually targeted during periodontitis treatment, the PELNs hold the promising potential for periodontitis treatment. This review summarizes the recent advances in PELNs-related research that are related to the treatment of periodontitis and regeneration of periodontitis-destructed tissues and the underlying mechanisms. We also discuss the existing challenges and prospects of the application of PELNs-based therapeutic approaches for periodontitis treatment.

Momordica charantia Exosome-Like Nanoparticles Exert Neuroprotective Effects Against Ischemic Brain Injury via Inhibiting Matrix Metalloproteinase 9 and Activating the AKT/GSK3β Signaling Pathway

Plant exosome-like nanoparticles (ELNs) have shown great potential in treating tumor and inflammatory diseases, but the neuroprotective effect of plant ELNs remains unknown. In the present study, we isolated and characterized novel ELNs from Momordica charantia (MC) and investigated their neuroprotective effects against cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury. In the present study, MC-ELNs were isolated by ultracentrifugation and characterized. Male Sprague–Dawley rats were subjected to middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) and MC-ELN injection intravenously. The integrity of the blood–brain barrier (BBB) was examined by Evans blue staining and with the expression of matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP-9), claudin-5, and ZO-1. Neuronal apoptosis was evaluated by TUNEL and the expression of apoptotic proteins including Bcl2, Bax, and cleaved caspase 3. The major discoveries include: 1) Dil-labeled MC-ELNs were identified in the infarct area; 2) MC-ELN treatment significantly ameliorated BBB disruption, decreased infarct sizes, and reduced neurological deficit scores; 3) MC-ELN treatment obviously downregulated the expression of MMP-9 and upregulated the expression of ZO-1 and claudin-5. Small RNA-sequencing revealed that MC-ELN-derived miRNA5266 reduced MMP-9 expression. Furthermore, MC-ELN treatment significantly upregulated the AKT/GSK3β signaling pathway and attenuated neuronal apoptosis in HT22 cells. Taken together, these findings indicate that MC-ELNs attenuate ischemia-reperfusion–induced damage to the BBB and inhibit neuronal apoptosis probably via the upregulation of the AKT/GSK3β signaling pathway.

Focusing on Future Applications and Current Challenges of Plant Derived Extracellular Vesicles

Plant derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nano-sized membranous vesicles released by plant cells, which contain lipids, proteins, nucleic acids and specific pharmacologically active substances. They are safe, widely available and expediently extractive. They have gratifyingly biological activity against inflammation, cancer, bacteria and oxidative aging, especially for the prevention or treatment of colitis, cancer, alcoholic liver, and COVID-19. In addition, as natural drug carriers, plant derived EVs have the potential to target the delivery of small molecule drugs and nucleic acid through oral, transdermal, injection. With the above advantages, plant derived EVs are expected to have excellent strong competitiveness in clinical application or preventive health care products in the future. We comprehensively reviewed the latest separation methods and physical characterization techniques of plant derived EVs, summarized the application of them in disease prevention or treatment and as a new drug carrier, and analyzed the clinical application prospect of plant derived EVs as a new drug carrier in the future. Finally, the problems hindering the development of plant derived EVs at present and consideration of the standardized application of them are discussed.

Multifunctional role of exosomes in viral diseases: From transmission to diagnosis and therapy

Efforts to discover antiviral drugs and diagnostic platforms have intensified to an unprecedented level since the outbreak of COVID-19. Nano-sized endosomal vesicles called exosomes have gained considerable attention from researchers due to their role in intracellular communication to regulate the biological activity of target cells through cargo proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids. According to recent studies, exosomes play a vital role in viral diseases including covid-19, with their interaction with the host immune system opening the door to effective antiviral treatments. Utilizing the intrinsic nature of exosomes, it is imperative to elucidate how exosomes exert their effect on the immune system or boost viral infectivity. Exosome biogenesis machinery is hijacked by viruses to initiate replication, spread infection, and evade the immune response. Exosomes, however, also participate in protective mechanisms by triggering the innate immune system. Besides that, exosomes released from the cells can carry a robust amount of information about the diseased state, serving as a potential biomarker for detecting viral diseases. This review describes how exosomes increase virus infectivity, act as immunomodulators, and function as a potential drug delivery carrier and diagnostic biomarker for diseases caused by HIV, Hepatitis, Ebola, and Epstein-Barr viruses. Furthermore, the review analyzes various applications of exosomes within the context of COVID-19, including its management.

Human Wharton's Jelly Mesenchymal Stem Cells Secretome Inhibits Human SARS-CoV-2 and Avian Infectious Bronchitis Coronaviruses

Human SARS-CoV-2 and avian infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) are highly contagious and deadly coronaviruses, causing devastating respiratory diseases in humans and chickens. The lack of effective therapeutics exacerbates the impact of outbreaks associated with SARS-CoV-2 and IBV infections. Thus, novel drugs or therapeutic agents are highly in demand for controlling viral transmission and disease progression. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) secreted factors (secretome) are safe and efficient alternatives to stem cells in MSC-based therapies. This study aimed to investigate the antiviral potentials of human Wharton’s jelly MSC secretome (hWJ-MSC-S) against SARS-CoV-2 and IBV infections in vitro and in ovo. The half-maximal inhibitory concentrations (IC50), cytotoxic concentration (CC50), and selective index (SI) values of hWJ-MSC-S were determined using Vero-E6 cells. The virucidal, anti-adsorption, and anti-replication antiviral mechanisms of hWJ-MSC-S were evaluated. The hWJ-MSC-S significantly inhibited infection of SARS-CoV-2 and IBV, without affecting the viability of cells and embryos. Interestingly, hWJ-MSC-S reduced viral infection by >90%, in vitro. The IC50 and SI of hWJ-MSC secretome against SARS-CoV-2 were 166.6 and 235.29 µg/mL, respectively, while for IBV, IC50 and SI were 439.9 and 89.11 µg/mL, respectively. The virucidal and anti-replication antiviral effects of hWJ-MSC-S were very prominent compared to the anti-adsorption effect. In the in ovo model, hWJ-MSC-S reduced IBV titer by >99%. Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC/MS-MS) analysis of hWJ-MSC-S revealed a significant enrichment of immunomodulatory and antiviral proteins. Collectively, our results not only uncovered the antiviral potency of hWJ-MSC-S against SARS-CoV-2 and IBV, but also described the mechanism by which hWJ-MSC-S inhibits viral infection. These findings indicate that hWJ-MSC-S could be utilized in future pre-clinical and clinical studies to develop effective therapeutic approaches against human COVID-19 and avian IB respiratory diseases.

Migrasomes: From Biogenesis, Release, Uptake, Rupture to Homeostasis and Diseases

Migrasomes are migration-dependent membrane-bound vesicular structures that contain cellular contents and small vesicles. Migrasomes grow on the tips or intersections of the retraction fibers after cells migrate away. The process of releasing migrasomes into the extracellular space is named as “migracytosis”. After releasing, they can be taken up by the surrounding cells, or rupture and further release their contents into the extracellular environment. Physiologically, migrasomes provide regional cues for organ morphogenesis during zebrafish gastrulation and discard the damaged mitochondria in response to mild mitochondrial stresses. Pathologically, migrasomes are released from podocyte during early podocyte stress and/or damage, from platelets after infection with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), from microglia/macrophages of the ischemic brain, and from tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα)-activated endothelial cells (ECs); thus, this newly discovered extracellular vesicle is involved in all these pathological processes. Moreover, migrasomes can modulate the proliferation of cancer cell via lateral transferring mRNA and protein. In this review, we will summarize the biogenesis, release, uptake, and rupture of migrasomes and discuss its biological roles in development, redox signalling, innate immunity and COVID-19, cardio-cerebrovascular diseases, renal diseases, and cancer biology, all of these highlight the importance of migrasomes in modulating body homeostasis and diseases.

Plant-Derived Exosomes as A Drug-Delivery Approach for the Treatment of Inflammatory Bowel Disease and Colitis-Associated Cancer

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic recurrent intestinal disease and includes Crohn’s disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC). Due to the complex etiology of colitis, the current treatments of IBD are quite limited and are mainly concentrated on the remission of the disease. In addition, the side effects of conventional drugs on the body cannot be ignored. IBD also has a certain relationship with colitis-associated cancer (CAC), and inflammatory cells can produce a large number of tumor-promoting cytokines to promote tumor progression. In recent years, exosomes from plants have been found to have the ability to load drugs to target the intestine and have great potential for the treatment of intestinal diseases. This plant-derived exosome-targeting delivery system can load chemical or nucleic acid drugs and deliver them to intestinal inflammatory sites stably and efficiently. This review summarizes the pathophysiological characteristics of IBD and CAC as well as the application and prospect of plant exosomes in the treatment of IBD and CAC.

Plant-RNA in Extracellular Vesicles: The Secret of Cross-Kingdom Communication

The release of extracellular vesicles (EVs) is a common language, used by living organisms from different kingdoms as a means of communication between them. Extracellular vesicles are lipoproteic particles that contain many biomolecules, such as proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids. The primary role of EVs is to convey information to the recipient cells, affecting their function. Plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) can be isolated from several plant species, and the study of their biological properties is becoming an essential starting point to study cross-kingdom communication, especially between plants and mammalians. Furthermore, the presence of microRNAs (miRNAs) in PDEVs represents an interesting aspect for understanding how PDEVs can target the mammalian genes involved in pathological conditions such as cancer, inflammation, and oxidative stress. In particular, this review focuses on the history of PDEVs, from their discovery, to purification from various matrices, and on the functional role of PDEV-RNAs in cross-kingdom interactions. It is worth noting that miRNAs packaged in PDEVs can be key modulators of human gene expression, representing potential therapeutic agents.

Technology insight: Plant-derived vesicles-How far from the clinical biotherapeutics and therapeutic drug carriers?

Within the past decades, extracellular vesicles (EVs) have emerged as important mediators of intercellular communication in both prokaryotes and higher eukaryotes to regulate a diverse range of biological processes. Besides EVs, exosome-like nanoparticles (ELNs) derived from plants were also emerging. Comparing to EVs, ELNs are source-widespread, cost-effective and easy to obtain. Their definite activities can be utilized for potential prevention/treatment of an abundance of diseases, including metabolic syndrome, cancer, colitis, alcoholic hepatitis and infectious diseases, which highlights ELNs as promising biotherapeutics. In addition, the potential of ELNs as natural or engineered drug carriers is also attractive. In this review, we tease out the timeline of plant EVs and ELNs, introduce the arising separation, purification and characterization techniques, state the stability and transport manner, discuss the therapeutic opportunities as well as the potential as novel drug carriers. Finally, the challenges and the direction of efforts to realize the clinical transformation of ELNs are also discussed.

Exosomes: Biological Pharmaceutical Nanovectors for Theranostics

Exosomes are natural cell-derived nanovesicles of endocytic origin that enable cellular crosstalk by transferring encapsulated molecular cargos across biological barriers, thereby holding significantly complex implications in the etiology and progression of diverse disease states. Consequently, the development of exosomes-based nano-theranostic strategies has received immense consideration for advancing therapeutic interventions and disease prognosis. Their favorable biopharmaceutical properties make exosomes a unique nanoparticulate carrier for pharmaceutical drug delivery. This review provides an update on the contemporary strategies utilizing exosomes for theranostic applications in nanomedicine. In addition, we provide a synopsis of exosomal features and insights into strategic modifications that control in vivo biodistribution. We further discuss their opportunities, merits and pitfalls for cell/tissue targeted drug delivery in personalized nanotherapy.

The role of microRNAs in solving COVID-19 puzzle from infection to therapeutics: A mini-review

Nowadays, one of the major global health concerns is coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), which is caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Even though numerous treatments and vaccines to combat this virus are currently under development, the detailed molecular mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of this disease are yet to be elucidated to design future therapeutic tools against SARS-CoV-2 variants. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small (20-24 nucleotides), non-coding RNA molecules that regulate post-transcriptional gene expression. Recently, it has been demonstrated that both host and viral-encoded miRNAs are crucial for the successful infection of SARS-CoV-2. For instance, dysregulation of miRNAs that modulate multiple genes expressed in COVID-19 patients with comorbidities (e.g., type 2 diabetes, lung adenocarcinoma, and cerebrovascular disorders) could affect the severity of the disease. Thus, altered expression levels of circulating miRNAs might be helpful to diagnose this illness and forecast whether a COVID-19 patient could develop a severe state of the disease. Besides, researchers have found a number of miRNAs could inhibit the expression of proteins, such as ACE2, TMPRSS2, spike, and Nsp12, involved in the life cycle of SARS-CoV-2. Accordingly, miRNAs represent potential biomarkers and therapeutic targets for this devastating viral disease. Therefore, in this current review, we present the recent discoveries regarding the clinical relevance and biological roles of miRNAs in COVID-19.

The Challenges and Opportunities in the Development of MicroRNA Therapeutics: A Multidisciplinary Viewpoint

microRNAs (miRs) are emerging as attractive therapeutic targets because of their small size, specific targetability, and critical role in disease pathogenesis. However, <20 miR targeting molecules have entered clinical trials, and none progressed to phase III. The difficulties in miR target identification, the moderate efficacy of miR inhibitors, cell type-specific delivery, and adverse outcomes have impeded the development of miR therapeutics. These hurdles are rooted in the functional complexity of miR's role in disease and sequence complementarity-dependent/-independent effects in nontarget tissues. The advances in understanding miR's role in disease, the development of efficient miR inhibitors, and innovative delivery approaches have helped resolve some of these hurdles. In this review, we provide a multidisciplinary viewpoint on the challenges and opportunities in the development of miR therapeutics.

Exosome-based therapies for mucosal delivery

Exosomes are membrane-bound extracellular nanovesicles secreted by most cells and found in multiple sources, including bodily fluids, plants, fruit, and bovine milk. They play an important role as mediators of intercellular communication, having a distinct ability to carry small molecules, proteins, and nucleic acids to recipient cells over large distances. Moreover, competency in crossing usually poorly permeable biological barriers has led to their promising use in diagnostics and in therapeutics, either as therapeutic entities on their own or as drug delivery vehicles, with superior stability, biocompatibility, circulation time and target specificity in comparison to conventional drug delivery systems. The aim of this review is to summarise and critically discuss the current literature on the use of exosomes in a therapeutic setting, with a particular focus on their use as drug delivery vehicles for mucosal drug delivery.

Extracellular Vesicles in Skin Wound Healing

Each year, millions of individuals suffer from a non-healing wound, abnormal scarring, or injuries accompanied by an infection. For these cases, scientists are searching for new therapeutic interventions, from which one of the most promising is the use of extracellular vesicles (EVs). Naturally, EV-based signaling takes part in all four wound healing phases: hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling. Such an extensive involvement of EVs suggests exploiting their action to modulate the impaired healing phase. Furthermore, next to their natural wound healing capacity, EVs can be engineered for better defined pharmaceutical purposes, such as carrying specific cargo or targeting specific destinations by labelling them with certain surface proteins. This review aims to promote scientific awareness in basic and translational research of EVs by summarizing the current knowledge about their natural role in each stage of skin repair and the most recent findings in application areas, such as wound healing, skin regeneration, and treatment of dermal diseases, including the stem cell-derived, plant-derived, and engineered EVs.