Chocolate: food or drug?

Chocolate cravings in American and Spanish individuals: biological and cultural influences

This study investigated relationships of culture and physiology with chocolate cravings. Gender differences in chocolate cravings in Spaniards and Americans were examined using parallel Spanish- and English-version questionnaires administered to 259 undergraduate students at one university in Spain and 306 at one university in the US. Responses were examined separately for men and women in American and Spanish samples using multivariate analyses to control for variables like chocolate availability and cultural involvement (which was described by country of birth, years spent in that country, media use, and cultural identification). Chocolate was the most craved food among all Spanish students, but only female American students. A total of 91% of American women and 59% of American men reported chocolate cravings, and this significant difference persisted when controlling for American cultural involvement. In contrast, 90% of Spanish women versus 78% of Spanish men reported chocolate cravings, but the gender difference was no longer significant when controlling for Spanish cultural involvement. These results do not reject a role of physiology in chocolate cravings, but suggest that American culture encourages disproportionately more chocolate cravings among females than males, and that globalization may have led to a similar craving pattern among Spaniards, although gender differences in cravings are less clear-cut than they are in the US.

Mood state effects of chocolate

BACKGROUND

Chocolate consumption has long been associated with enjoyment and pleasure. Popular claims confer on chocolate the properties of being a stimulant, relaxant, euphoriant, aphrodisiac, tonic and antidepressant. The last claim stimulated this review.

METHOD

We review chocolate's properties and the principal hypotheses addressing its claimed mood altering propensities. We distinguish between food craving and emotional eating, consider their psycho-physiological underpinnings, and examine the likely 'positioning' of any effect of chocolate to each concept.

RESULTS

Chocolate can provide its own hedonistic reward by satisfying cravings but, when consumed as a comfort eating or emotional eating strategy, is more likely to be associated with prolongation rather than cessation of a dysphoric mood.

LIMITATIONS

This review focuses primarily on clarifying the possibility that, for some people, chocolate consumption may act as an antidepressant self-medication strategy and the processes by which this may occur.

CONCLUSIONS

Any mood benefits of chocolate consumption are ephemeral.

The perceived effect of various foods and beverages on stool consistency

AIM

Some people believe that chocolate and other foods or beverages may cause constipation. This study was undertaken to quantify the effect of potentially constipating foods and beverages on apparently healthy and constipated populations of German individuals.

METHODS

A questionnaire asking for the effect of certain foods and beverages on stool form (perceived consistency) was answered by 200 healthy controls, 122 patients with chronic constipation, and 766 patients with irritable bowel syndrome with constipation (IBS-C).

RESULTS

Patients with constipation or IBS-C reported altered stool form after food and beverage consumption more often than controls (controls 42.5% vs constipation 52.0% vs IBS-C 57.0%, P < 0.001). Controls experienced hardening of stools less often and experienced softening more often than either constipation or IBS-C patients. When patients were asked which foods or beverages caused constipation (open ended question), chocolate was most frequently mentioned, followed by white bread and bananas. The results of systematic questioning yielded chocolate (48-64% of respondents), bananas (29-48%), and black tea (14-24%) as constipating, while prunes (41-52%), coffee (14-24%), wine (8-30%), beer (14-24%), and smoking (42-70% in those who smoked) were considered stool softeners.

CONCLUSION

Several foodstuffs may exert an effect on stool consistency. Chocolate, bananas and black tea are perceived to cause constipation, while prunes are perceived to soften stools in many people. Coffee, wine and beer were perceived to soften stools in a minority of people. Cigarettes are perceived to soften stools by about half of the smokers.

Chocolate craving and the menstrual cycle

Spanish and American female chocolate cravers reported the usual times when they craved chocolate by answering an open-ended question. They also were asked directly if they craved chocolate perimenstrually. American women (40% open-ended, 60% direct) were more likely than were Spanish women (4% open-ended, 24% direct) to report that their chocolate cravings occurred perimenstrually when responding to both questions. The most frequently reported times (other than perimenstrually) that chocolate was craved were the same for Spanish men and women (after eating, studying) and for American men and women (evening), differing cross-culturally but not across gender. The results suggest a cultural origin rather than a physiological basis for chocolate craving.

Sweet babies: chocolate consumption during pregnancy and infant temperament at six months

BACKGROUND

Chocolate contains several biologically active components potentially having behavioral and psychological consequences.

AIMS

We tested whether chocolate consumption and stress experiences during pregnancy predict mother-rated infant temperament at 6 months.

DESIGN AND SUBJECTS

Prenatal frequency of chocolate consumption and intensity of psychological stress experience of the mothers, and temperament characteristics of the infants 6 months postpartum were evaluated in 305 consecutive, healthy mother-infant dyads.

RESULTS

Mothers who reported daily consumption of chocolate rated more positively the temperament of their infants at 6 months. Maternal prenatal stress predicted more negatively tuned ratings of the infant temperament, particularly among those who reported never/seldom chocolate consumption. However, this effect was not observed among the mothers reporting weekly or daily chocolate consumption.

CONCLUSIONS

In addition to producing subjective feelings of psychological well being, chocolate may have effects at multiple environmental and psychological levels.

Cocoa Powder Increases Postprandial Insulinemia in Lean Young Adults

We hypothesized that chocolate products elicit higher insulin responses than matched products with alternate flavoring. To test this, we used a within-subject, repeated-measures comparison of six pairs of foods, one flavored with chocolate (cocoa powder) and the other not. Healthy subjects (n = 10, 4 men, 6 women) tested each pair of foods. Postprandial glucose and insulin levels were determined at intervals over 2 h using standardized glycemic index (GI) methodology. The product categories were chocolate bars, cakes, breakfast cereals, ice creams, flavored milks and puddings. Although the GI did not differ within each pair, the insulin index (II) of the chocolate product was always higher, by a mean of 28%, than the alternate flavored product (P < 0.001). The greatest difference occurred within the flavored milk category in which the chocolate version elicited 45% greater insulinemia than the strawberry flavored milk (P = 0.021). Macronutrient composition (fat, protein, sugar, fiber or energy density) accounted for nearly all of the variation in GI among the foods, but did not explain differences in insulinemia. The presence of cocoa powder in foods leads to greater postprandial insulin secretion than alternate flavorings. Specific insulinogenic amino acids or greater cephalic phase insulin release may explain the findings.

Sugar and fat: cravings and aversions

Food cravings are extremely common, particularly among women. Cravings are frequently reported for specific types of foods, including chocolate and foods high in both sugar and fat. Cravings for specific macronutrients, such as carbohydrate, have been postulated to result from a physiological need to alter neurotransmitters in such states as eating disorders, affective disorders or obesity. However, studies of such cravings are often confounded by differing sensory properties of high and low carbohydrate foods. There is some evidence that sweet, high fat foods are preferred by women with binge-eating disorders and that those preferences are mediated by the endogenous opioid system. Aversion to fat is seen primarily in women with anorexia nervosa. However, it is possible that changes in fat preference may be achieved through behavioral or pharmacological approaches. An understanding of food cravings and aversions may lead to improved methods for the prevention and treatment of obesity and eating disorders.

The effects of chocolates given by patients on the well-being of nurses and their support staff

Chocolate has a number of extremely appealing sensory qualities, and often are given by patients to those working in hospital wards as a token of their gratitude. This study examines whether this has any harmful effects. Eighty nine qualified nurses, 21 ward assistants, and 18 nursing students completed a structured questionnaire, showing that on average 5.4 chocolates were eaten each day. About 2/3 of the recipients ate 1-5 chocolates a day, while a few (3%) ate more than 20 per day. The most common reason given for eating them was simply because they were there. However, a quarter felt that a healthier alternative would be an adequate alternative gift. Around a third of those surveyed felt that the chocolates had a detrimental effect on their well-being. It is unlikely that chocolates will ever be scarce on hospital wards because there is a never-ending supply from grateful patients. Consequently, it will be difficult to restructure the chocolate-eating habits of those working on hospital wards.

Functional foods: benefits, concerns and challenges-a position paper from the american council on science and health

Functional foods can be considered to be those whole, fortified, enriched or enhanced foods that provide health benefits beyond the provision of essential nutrients (e.g., vitamins and minerals), when they are consumed at efficacious levels as part of a varied diet on a regular basis. Linking the consumption of functional foods or food ingredients with health claims should be based on sound scientific evidence, with the "gold standard" being replicated, randomized, placebo-controlled, intervention trials in human subjects. However, not all foods on the market today that are claimed to be functional foods are supported by enough solid data to merit such claims. This review categorizes a variety of functional foods according to the type of evidence supporting their functionality, the strength of that evidence and the recommended intakes. Functional foods represent one of the most intensively investigated and widely promoted areas in the food and nutrition sciences today. However, it must be emphasized that these foods and ingredients are not magic bullets or panaceas for poor health habits. Diet is only one aspect of a comprehensive approach to good health.

Aspectos nutricionais relacionados ao ciclo menstrual

O objetivo da presente revisão é apresentar os principais tópicos discutidos na literatura quanto à associação da nutrição com o ciclo menstrual, contribuindo para a implementação do atendimento nutricional de mulheres. São revisados aspectos referentes à fisiologia da menstruação, alterações metabólicas durante o ciclo menstrual e comportamentos alimentares associados a ele. Considerando-se o ciclo menstrual dividido em duas fases, a folicular e a lútea, é nesta última que são descritas mais alterações, como retenção de água, elevação de peso, aumento de demanda energética, modificações no perfil lipídico e no metabolismo de vitamina D, cálcio, magnésio e ferro, hipersensibilidade emocional, dores generalizadas e mudança do comportamento alimentar. Em relação a este último item, podem ocorrer maior ingestão energética e o desenvolvimento de compulsões alimentares, principalmente por chocolate, doces e alimentos muito salgados. É fundamental que todos os aspectos citados sejam investigados durante a consulta nutricional, a fim de serem adotadas condutas mais específicas.

Endocannabinoids and cannabinoid receptor genetics

This review presents the remarkable advances that have been achieved in marijuana (cannabinoid) research, with the discovery of specific receptors and the existence of naturally occurring cannabis-like substances in the human body and brain. The last decade has seen more rapid progress in marijuana research than any time in the thousands of years that marijuana has been used by humans, particularly in cannabinoid genomics. The cDNA and genomic sequences encoding G protein-coupled cannabinoid receptors (Cnrs) from several species have now been cloned. Endogenous cannabinoids (endocannabinoids), synthetic and hydrolyzing enzymes and transporters that define neurochemically-specific cannabinoid brain pathways have been identified. Endocannabinoid lipid signaling molecules alter activity at G protein-coupled receptors (GPCR) and possibly at anandamide-gated ion channels, such as vanilloid receptors. Availability of increasingly-specific CB1 and CB2 Cnr antagonists and of CB1 and CB2 Cnr knockout mice have increased our understanding of these cannabinoid systems and provides tantalizing evidence for even more G protein-coupled Cnrs. Initial studies of the Cnr gene structure, regulation and polymorphisms whet our appetite for more information about these interesting genes, their variants and roles in vulnerabilities to addictions and other neuropsychiatric disorders. Behavioral studies of cannabinoids document the complex interactions between rewarding and aversive effects of these drugs. Pursuing cannabinoid-related molecular, pharmacological and behavioral leads will add greatly to our understanding of endogenous brain neuromodulator systems, abused substances and potential therapeutics. This review of CB1 and CB2 Cnr genes in human and animal brain and their neurobiological effects provide a basis for many of these studies. Therefore, understanding the physiological cannabinoid control system in the human body and brain will contribute to elucidating this natural regulatory mechanism in health and disease.

Stress-related eating and drinking behavior and body mass index and predictors of this behavior

BACKGROUND

Earlier studies on stress and obesity have not considered coping in situations involving stress. This study examines the associations between stress-related eating and drinking and obesity and the factors predicting this behavior. Predictive factors include risk factors for adult obesity, longitudinal socioeconomic status, and perceived social support.

METHODS

A longitudinal, population-based study of 2,359 men and 2,791 women born in 1966 in Northern Finland was conducted.

RESULTS

The body mass index at 31 years was highest among stress-driven eaters and drinkers, especially among women. Stress-driven eaters tended to eat sausages, hamburgers and pizza, and chocolate more frequently than other people. Stress-driven eaters consumed more alcohol than other people. The best predictors of stress-related eating and drinking among men age 31 years were being single or divorced, a long history of unemployment, an academic degree, and a low level of occupational education. Among women, the best predictor was a lack of emotional support.

CONCLUSION

Programs aimed at preventing and treating obesity should cover the way in which people deal with emotions, ways of achieving greater emotional support, and strategies for handling stress caused by unemployment or work.

Anandamide and diet: inclusion of dietary arachidonate and docosahexaenoate leads to increased brain levels of the corresponding N-acylethanolamines in piglets

Endogenous ligands of cannabinoid receptors have been discovered recently and include some N-acylethanolamines (NAEs; e.g., N-arachidonoylethanolamine) and some 2-acylglycerols (e.g., sn-2-arachidonoylglycerol). Previously, we found these compounds to be active biologically when administered per os in large quantities to mice. In the present work, piglets were fed diets with and without 20:4n-6 and 22:6n-3 fatty acid precursors of NAEs, in levels similar to those found in porcine milk, during the first 18 days of life, and corresponding brain NAEs were assessed. In piglets fed diets containing 20:4n-6 and 22:6n-3, there were increases in several biologically active NAEs in brain homogenates-20:4n-6 NAE (4-fold), 20:5n-3 NAE (5-fold), and 22:5n-3 and 22:6n-3 NAE (9- to 10-fold). These results support a mechanism we propose for dietary long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids influences on brain biochemistry with presumed functional sequelae. This paradigm will enable targeted investigations to determine whether and why specific populations such as infants, elderly, or persons suffering from certain clinical conditions may benefit from dietary long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids.

In vitro pharmacological activity of the tetrahydroisoquinoline salsolinol present in products from Theobroma cacao L. like cocoa and chocolate

Cocoa and chocolate contain the tetrahydroisoquinoline alkaloid salsolinol up to a concentration of 25 microg/g. Salsolinol is a dopaminergic active compound which binds to the D(2) receptor family, especially to the D(3) receptor with a K(i) of 0.48+/-0.021 micromol/l. It inhibits the formation of cyclic AMP and the release of beta-endorphin and ACTH in a pituitary cell system. Taking the detected concentration and the pharmacological properties into account, salsolinol seems to be one of the main psychoactive compounds present in cocoa and chocolate and might be included in chocolate addiction.

Tetrahydro-beta-carbolines, potential neuroactive alkaloids, in chocolate and cocoa

Tetrahydro-beta-carbolines (THbetaCs), potential neuroactive alkaloids, were found in chocolate and cocoa. 6-Hydroxy-1-methyl-1,2, 3,4-tetrahydro-beta-carboline (6OHMTHbetaC), 1,2,3, 4-tetrahydro-beta-carboline-3-carboxylic acid (THCA), 1-methyl-1,2,3, 4-tetrahydro-beta-carboline-3-carboxylic acid (MTCA) in both diastereoisomers (1S,3S and 1R,3S), and 1-methyl-1,2,3, 4-tetrahydro-beta-carboline (MTHbetaC), besides serotonin and tryptamine biogenic amines, were identified and quantified in dark chocolate, milk chocolate, cocoa, and chocolate-containing cereals by RP-HPLC-fluorescence and HPLC-MS. For each THbetaC, the concentration ranges were determined: 6OHMTHbetaC (0.16-3.92 microg/g), THCA (0.01-0.85 microg/g), 1S,3S-MTCA (0.35-2 microg/g), 1R,3S-MTCA (0.14-0.88 microg/g), and MTHbetaC (nd-0.21 microg/g). The highest content was generally found in chocolates and cocoas, but cereals containing chocolate also showed an appreciable amount of THbetaCs. The possible biological implications of this novel group of alkaloids in chocolate are discussed.

Cannabis and cannabinoid receptors

Cannabis and cannabinoids exert many of their biological functions through receptor-mediated mechanisms. Two types of cannabinoid receptors have been identified, namely CB(1) and CB(2), both coupled to a G protein. CB(1) receptors have been detected in the central nervous system (where they are responsible for the characteristic effects of Cannabis, including catalepsy, depression of motor activity, analgesia and feelings of relaxation and well being) and in peripheral neurons (where their activation produces a suppression in neurotransmitter release in the heart, bladder, intestine and vas deferens). Cannabinoid CB(2) receptors have only been detected outside the central nervous system, mostly in cells of the immune system, presumably mediating cannabinoid-induced immunosuppression and antinflammatory effects. With the discovery of cannabinoid receptors for exogenous cannabinoids, also endogenous cannabinoids (anandamide, 2-arachidonylglycerol) have been described.