Tumor necrosis factor or tumor promoting factor?

Therapeutic effect of Active Hexose-Correlated Compound (AHCC) combined with CpG-ODN (oligodeoxynucleotide) in B16 melanoma murine model

While Active Hexose Correlated Compound (AHCC) and CpG oligodeoxynucleotide (ODN) are separately known to modulate oxidative stress and immune responses in cancer patients, the combined effect of these two compounds is unknown. To clarify this, we investigated whether AHCC plus KSK-CpG ODN would be therapeutic in B16 melanoma mouse model, if so, and how in reduction-oxidation (redox) balance and cytokines network. We found that treatment groups (AHCC only, KSK-CpG ODN only and AHCC/KSK-CpG ODN) markedly reduced (p<0.001) tumor size when compared to the positive control (PC) group. The total white blood cell (WBC) of AHCC only and KSK-CpG ODN only-treated groups showed significant lower counts than that of PC group. Next, the production of nitric oxide (NO) was significantly increased (p<0.01) in AHCC/KSK-CpG ODN group compared to the PC group. Further, the redox balance was improved in AHCC/KSK-CpG ODN group through significantly low (p<0.001) reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and significantly high (p<0.05) glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activity compared to the PC group. Finally, AHCC/KSK-CpG ODN (p<0.01) and KSK-CpG ODN (p<0.001)-treated groups augmented tumor immune surveillance as shown by significantly increased level of anti-inflammatory cytokine (IL-10) and significantly decreased (p<0.05) level of pro-tumorigenic IL-6 of AHCC/KSK-CpG ODN treated group as compared to the PC group. Collectively, our study indicates therapeutic effect of Active Hexose-Correlated Compound (AHCC) combined with KSK-CpG ODN in B16 melanoma murine model via balancing redox and cytokines network.

Altering in vivo macrophage responses with modified polymer properties

Macrophage reprogramming has long been the focus of research in disease therapeutics and biomaterial implantation. With different chemical and physical properties of materials playing a role in macrophage polarization, it is important to investigate and categorize the activation effects of material parameters both in vitro and in vivo. In this study, we have investigated the effects of material surface chemistry on in vivo polarization of macrophages. The library of materials used here include poly(N-isopropylacrylamide-co-acrylic acid) (p(NIPAm-co-AAc)) nanoparticles (∼600 nm) modified with various functional groups. This study also focuses on the development of a quantitative structure-activity relationship method (QSAR) as a predictive tool for determining the macrophage polarization in response to particular biomaterial surface chemistries. Here, we successfully use in vivo imaging and histological analysis to identify the macrophage response and activation. We demonstrate the ability to induce a spectrum of macrophage phenotypes with a change in material functionality as well as identify certain material parameters that seem to correlate with each phenotype. This suggests the potential to develop materials for a variety of applications and predict the outcome of macrophage activation in response to new surface chemistries.

Targeted immune therapy of ovarian cancer

Clinical outcomes, such as recurrence-free survival and overall survival, in ovarian cancer are quite variable, independent of common characteristics such as stage, response to therapy, and grade. This disparity in outcomes warrants further exploration and therapeutic targeting into the interaction between the tumor and host. One compelling host characteristic that contributes both to the initiation and progression of ovarian cancer is the immune system. Hundreds of studies have confirmed a prominent role for the immune system in modifying the clinical course of the disease. Recent studies also show that anti-tumor immunity is often negated by immune regulatory cells present in the tumor microenvironment. Regulatory immune cells also directly enhance the pathogenesis through the release of various cytokines and chemokines, which together form an integrated pathological network. Thus, in the future, research into immunotherapy targeting ovarian cancer will probably become increasingly focused on combination approaches that simultaneously augment immunity while preventing local immune suppression. In this article, we summarize important immunological targets that influence ovarian cancer outcome as well as include an update on newer immunotherapeutic strategies.

Gene expression profile analyze the molecular mechanism of CXCR7 regulating papillary thyroid carcinoma growth and metastasis

Background

To detect genetic expression profile alterations after papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC) cells transfected with chemokine receptor CXCR7 gene by gene microarray, and gain insights into molecular mechanisms of how CXCR7 regulating PTC growth and metastasis.

Methods

The Human OneArray microarray was used for a complete genome-wide transcript profiling of CXCR7 transfected PTCs (K1-CXCR7 cells), defined as experimental group. Non CXCR7 transfected PTCs (K1 cells) were used as control group. Differential analysis for per gene was performed with a random variance model and t test, p values were adjusted to control the false discovery rate. Gene ontology (GO) on differentially expressed genes to identify the biological processes in modulating the progression of papillary thyroid carcinoma. Pathway analysis was used to evaluate the signaling pathway that differentially expressed genes were involved in. In addition, quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (q-PCR) and Western blot were used to verify the top differentially expression genes.

Results

Comparative analysis revealed that the expression level of 1149 genes was changed in response to CXCR7 transfection. After unsupervised hierarchical clustering analysis, 270 differentially expressed genes were filtered, of them 156 genes were up-regulated whereas 114 genes were down-regulated in K1-CXCR7 cells. GO enrichment analysis revealed the differentially expressed genes were mainly involved in biopolymer metabolic process, signal transduction and protein metabolism. Pathway enrichment analysis revealed differentially expressed genes were mainly involved in ECM-receptor interaction, Focal adhesion, MAPK signaling pathway and Cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction pathway. More importantly, the expression level of genes closely associated with tumor growth and metastasis was altered significantly in K1-CXCR7 cells, including up-regulated genes FN1, COL1A1, COL4A1, PDGFRB, LTB, CXCL12, MMP-11, MT1-MMP and down-regulated genes ITGA7, and Notch-1.

Conclusions

Gene expression profiling analysis of papillary thyroid carcinoma can further delineate the mechanistic insights on how CXCR7 regulating papillary thyroid carcinoma growth and metastasis. CXCR7 may regulate growth and metastasis of papillary thyroid carcinoma via the activation of PI3K/AKT pathway and its downstream NF-κB signaling, as well as the down-regulation of Notch signaling.

Immunohistochemical staining of tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-10 in benign and malignant ovarian neoplasms

Ovarian cancer is the ninth most common malignancy and the fifth leading cause of cancer death in women in the USA. The majority of malignant tumors of the ovary are diagnosed at an advanced stage, making it the most fatal gynecological cancer. The aim of the current study was to determine whether there are differences in immunohistochemical tissue staining of cytokine tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-10 (IL-10) between benign tumors and malignant primary ovarian cancer. In total, 28 patients undergoing surgery for ovarian cysts were evaluated, and a diagnosis of benign neoplasm (n=14) or malignant neoplasm (n=14) was determined. An immunohistochemical study of histological sections of ovarian tumors was conducted. The results were analyzed using Fisher's exact test, with P<0.05 indicating a statistically significant difference. Immunohistochemical staining of IL-10 was increased in malignant tumors compared with benign tumors (P=0.0128). For TNF-α, the immunohistochemical staining was more intense in malignant neoplasms, however, a statistically significant difference was not observed. These results indicate that the analysis of cytokines may be useful as a potential tissue marker of ovarian malignancy.

Link between chronic inflammation and human papillomavirus-induced carcinogenesis (Review)

Inflammation is a defense strategy against invading agents and harmful molecules that is activated immediately following a stimulus, and involves the release of cytokines and chemokines, which activate the innate immune response. These mediators act together to increase blood flow and vascular permeability, facilitating recruitment of effector cells to the site of injury. Following resolution of the injury and removal of the stimulus, inflammation is disabled, but if the stimulus persists, inflammation becomes chronic and is strongly associated with cancer. This is likely to be due to the fact that the inflammation leads to a wound that does not heal, requiring a constant renewal of cells, which increases the risk of neoplastic transformation. Debris from phagocytosis, including the reactive species of oxygen and nitrogen that cause damage to DNA already damaged by the leukotrienes and prostaglandins, has an impact on inflammation and various carcinogenic routes. There is an association between chronic inflammation, persistent infection and cancer, where oncogenic action is mediated by autocrine and paracrine signals, causing changes in somatic cells under the influence of the microbial genome or of epigenetic factors. Among the infectious agents associated with cancer, certain genotypes of human papillomavirus (HPV) stand out. HPV is responsible for virtually all cases of cervical cancer and a lower proportion of cancers of the vagina, vulva, anus, penis and a number of extragenital cancers. In the present review, recent advances in the mechanisms involved in the inflammatory response are presented with their participation in the process of carcinogenesis, emphasizing the role of chronic inflammation in the development of HPV-induced cervical cancer.

Modulating the tumor microenvironment with RNA interference as a cancer treatment strategy

The tumor microenvironment is composed of accessory cells and immune cells in addition to extracellular matrix (ECM) components. The stromal compartment interacts with cancer cells in a complex crosstalk to support tumor development. Growth factors and cytokines produced by stromal cells support the growth of tumor cells and promote interaction with the vasculature to enhance tumor progression and invasion. The activation of autocrine and paracrine oncogenic signaling pathways by growth factors, cytokines, and proteases derived from both tumor cells and the stromal compartment is thought to play a major role in assisting tumor cells during metastasis. Consequently, targeting tumor-stroma interactions by RNA interference (RNAi)-based approaches is a promising strategy in the search for novel treatment modalities in human cancer. Recent advances in packaging technology including the use of polymers, peptides, liposomes, and nanoparticles to deliver small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) into target cells may overcome limitations associated with potential RNAi-based therapeutics. Newly developed nonviral gene delivery approaches have shown improved anticancer efficacy suggesting that RNAi-based therapeutics provide novel opportunities to elicit significant gene silencing and induce regression of tumor growth. This chapter summarizes our current understanding of the tumor microenvironment and highlights some potential targets for therapeutic intervention with RNAi-based cancer therapeutics.

Increased expression of tumor necrosis factor-α is associated with advanced colorectal cancer stages

AIM: To detect the expression of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) in colorectal cancer (CRC) cells among Saudi patients, and correlate its expression with clinical stages of cancer.

METHODS: Archival tissue specimens were collected from 30 patients with CRC who had undergone surgical intervention at King Khalid University Hospital. Patient demographic information, including age and gender, tumor sites, and histological type of CRC, was recorded. To measure TNF-α mRNA expression in CRC, total RNA was extracted from tumor formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded, and adjacent normal tissues. Reverse transcription and reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction were performed. Colorectal tissue microarrays were constructed to investigate the protein expression of TNF-α by immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS: The relative expression of TNF-α mRNA in colorectal cancer was significantly higher than that seen in adjacent normal colorectal tissue. High TNF-α gene expression was associated with Stage III and IV neoplasms when compared with earlier tumor stages (P = 0.004). Eighty-three percent of patients (25/30) showed strong TNF-α positive staining, while only 10% (n = 3/30) of patients showed weak staining, and 7% (n = 2/30) were negative. We showed the presence of elevated TNF-α gene expression in cancer cells, which strongly correlated with advanced stages of tumor.

CONCLUSION: High levels of TNF-α expression could be an independent diagnostic indicator of colorectal cancer, and targeting TNF-α might be a promising prognostic tool by assessment of the clinical stages of CRC.

Macrophages and dendritic cells as actors in the immune reaction of classical Hodgkin lymphoma

BACKGROUND

The inflammatory infiltrate plays a pivotal role in classical Hodgkin lymphoma (cHL). Here, we focussed on the role of macrophages (MΦ) and dendritic cells (DC).

METHODS

MΦ and DC infiltration was investigated in 106 cHL specimens using immunohistochemistry and cytokine expression was analyzed in a subset by real-time PCR. Human peripheral blood-derived monocytes, DC, MΦ stimulated with GM-CSF (MΦGM-CSF, pro-inflammatory MΦ-1-model) or M-CSF (MΦM-CSF, immunomodulatory MΦ-2-model) were incubated with cHL cell line (L1236, HDLM2) supernatants (SN). DC maturation or MΦ polarization were investigated by flow cytometry. Furthermore, the impact of DC or MΦ on cHL cell proliferation was analyzed by BrdU/CFSE assay.

RESULTS

In cHL tissues mature myeloid (m)DC and MΦ predominated. High numbers of CD83+ mDC and low numbers of CD163+ MΦ were associated with improved disease specific survival. In numerous cHL specimens increased levels of both pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines and of IL13 and GM-CSF were observed compared to reactive lymphadenopathies. Maturation of DC and induction and maintenance of an immunomodulatory MΦ phenotype were promoted by SN derived from cHL cell lines. TNFα neutralization in SN resulted in a significant inhibition of mDC maturation. DC and pro-inflammatory MΦ inhibited the proliferation of cHL cells.

CONCLUSION

Adopting an immunomodulatory phenotype is a potential mechanism for how MΦ promote immune evasion in cHL. Mature DC, in contrast, might participate in antitumoral immunity.

The association between the polymorphisms of TNF-α and non-Hodgkin lymphoma: a meta-analysis

Many genetic variations in the promoter region of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) may confer host susceptibility to cancer by influencing TNF-α expression. Nevertheless, the results remain inconclusive. The current meta-analysis was performed to investigate the association between three common TNF-α promoter polymorphisms and the risk of non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL). A literature search was conducted mainly from PubMed for all eligible studies. The pooled odds ratios (ORs) and corresponding 95 % confidence intervals (CIs) were used to assess the association of TNF-α polymorphisms with the risk of NHL. TNF-α -308 A allele showed a statistically significant increased risk for NHL under the homozygous (AA vs. GG, OR = 1.51, 95 % CI = 1.26-1.80) and recessive (OR = 1.47, 95 % CI = 1.23-1.75) models, respectively. The stratified analyses showed an increased risk of NHL with the presence of TNF-α -308 A allele among Africans and Caucasians, but a decreased risk among Asians. No association was observed between -238 G/A polymorphism and NHL risk either in the overall analysis or in the stratified analysis. Similarly, pooled analysis did not reveal an altered risk of NHL with -857 C/T polymorphism. Nonetheless, a statistically significant association was observed among Asians when stratified by ethnicity. Among the three genetic variations of interest, TNF-α -308 G/A polymorphism was significantly associated with the risk of NHL; neither -238 G/A nor -857 C/T polymorphism was shown to alter the overall NHL risk; however, stratified analysis by ethnicity observed a statistically significant association between -857 C/T polymorphism and the risk of NHL among Asians.

Whole blood transcriptional profiling reveals deregulation of oxidative and antioxidative defence genes in myelofibrosis and related neoplasms. Potential implications of downregulation of Nrf2 for genomic instability and disease progression

The Philadelphia-negative chronic myeloproliferative neoplasms - essential thrombocythemia (ET), polycythemia vera (PV), and myelofibrosis (MF) (MPNs) - have recently been shown to be associated with chronic inflammation, oxidative stress and accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Using whole blood transcriptional profiling, we report that several oxidative stress and anti-oxidative stress genes are significantly deregulated in MPNs. Among the twenty most up- and downregulated genes, ATOX1, DEFB122, GPX8, PRDX2, PRDX6, PTGS1, and SEPP1 were progressively upregulated from ET over PV to PMF, whereas AKR1B1, CYBA, SIRT2, TTN, and UCP2 were progressively downregulated in ET, PV and PMF (all FDR <0.05). The gene Nrf2, encoding the transcription factor nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (NFE2L2 or Nrf2) was significantly downregulated in all MPNs. Nrf2 has a key role in the regulation of the oxidative stress response and modulates both migration and retention of hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) in their niche. The patogenetic importance of Nrf2 depletion in the context of expansion of the hematopoietic progenitor pool in MPNs is discussed with particular focus upon the implications of concomitant downregulation of Nrf2 and CXCR4 for stem cell mobilization.

Anti-tumor necrosis factor therapy inhibits lung metastasis in an osteosarcoma cell line

BACKGROUND

Osteosarcoma is the most common primary malignancy of bone, and patients often develop pulmonary metastases. In a previous study, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α treatment of human osteosarcoma cells increases their metastatic ability in an animal model. TNF-α can act as a tumor necrosis factor and also as a tumor-promoting factor. In the present study, the effect of a TNF-α inhibitor on osteosarcoma aggressiveness and pulmonary metastases was investigated in vitro and in vivo.

METHODS

The effect of infliximab, a TNF-α inhibitor, on a metastatic osteosarcoma 143B cell growth and motility was investigated in vitro. An orthotopic xenograft model of 143B cell growth and spontaneous metastasis in SCID mice was used to assess the in vivo effect of infliximab.

RESULTS

Infliximab greatly reduced cell motility and pulmonary metastases in 143B cells. The mechanism of pulmonary metastasis inhibition involved decreased expression of CXC chemokine receptor 4 (CXCR4), Rho (small GTPase protein), and its effector.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest a novel role for TNF-α inhibition in the reduction or prevention of pulmonary metastases of osteosarcoma in this animal model. TNF-α inhibition may become a preventive therapeutic option for the pulmonary metastases of osteosarcoma.

Colorectal cancer severity and survival in correlation with tumour necrosis factor-alpha

Colorectal cancer (CRC) development is strongly associated with innate immune mechanisms and intestinal inflammation. The aim of the study was to investigate the pre-operative serum levels of TNF-α and its correlation with cancer progression and survival in CRC patients taking into account the genotype of -308G/A promoter polymorphism in TNF-α gene (rs1800629). TNF-α -308G/A genotypes of 119 CRC cases and 177 no CRC controls were determined by restriction fragment length polymorphism assay (RFLP-PCR). TNF-α serum levels were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Although no significant differences in allele and genotype frequencies between CRC and controls were observed, it should be noted that the minor allele-A and its homozygous genotype were overrepresented among CRC. In addition, allele-A was more frequent in early CRC patients compared to advanced cases. TNF-α serum level was significantly higher in CRC patients than in controls (36.1 ± 8.4 pg/mL vs. 18.66 ± 11 pg/mL; p = 0.0000001). In the subgroup analysis by tumour-node-metastasis stages, the highest TNF-α level was found in stage IV (42.7 ± 12.5 pg/mL) and was significantly elevated compared to earlier stages of CRC and controls. The survival rate of CRC patients with low TNF-α serum level, estimated as median survival, was significantly higher than that of patients with high levels of TNF-α (38.4 vs. 7.761 months; log rank test p = 0.00015) In conclusion, we can affirm that TNF-α affects tumour development along with disease progression which has an impact on the survival of CRC.

Immune suppressive effect of cinnamaldehyde due to inhibition of proliferation and induction of apoptosis in immune cells: implications in cancer

Background

Besides its anti-inflammatory effects, cinnamaldehyde has been reported to have anti-carcinogenic activity. Here, we investigated its impact on immune cells.

Methods

Activation of nuclear factor-κB by cinnamaldehyde (0–10 µg/ml) alone or in combination with lipopolysaccharide was assessed in THP1XBlue human monocytic cell line and in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). Proliferation and secretion of cytokines (IL10 and TNFα) was determined in primary immune cells and the human cell lines (THP1, Jurkat E6-1 and Raji cell lines) stimulated with cinnamaldehyde alone or in conjunction with lipopolysaccharide. Nitric oxide was determined in mouse RAW264.7 cells. Moreover, different treated PBMCs were stained for CD3, CD20 and AnnexinV.

Results

Low concentrations (up to 1 µg/ml) of cinnamaldehyde resulted in a slight increase in nuclar factor-kB activation, whereas higher concentrations led to a dose-dependent decrease of nuclear factor-kB activation (up to 50%) in lipopolysachharide-stimulated THP1 cells and PBMCs. Accordingly, nitric oxide, interleukin 10 secretion as well as cell proliferation were reduced in lipopolysachharide-stimulated RAW264.7 cells, PBMCs and THP1, Raji and Jurkat-E6 immune cells in the presence of cinnamaldehyde in a concentration-dependent manner. Flow cytometric analysis of PBMCs revealed that CD3+ were more affected than CD20+ cells to apopotosis by cinnamaldehyde.

Conclusion

We attribute the anti-inflammatory properties of cinnamaldehyde to its ability to block nuclear factor-κB activation in immune cells. Treatment with cinnamaldehyde led to inhibition of cell viability, proliferation and induced apoptosis in a dose-dependent manner in primary and immortalized immune cells. Therefore, despite its described anti-carcinogenic property, treatment with cinnamaldehyde in cancer patients might be contraindicated due to its ability to inhibit immune cell activation.

Transient TNF regulates the self-renewing capacity of stem-like label-retaining cells in sphere and skin equivalent models of melanoma

BACKGROUND

It is well established that inflammation promotes cancer, including melanoma, although the exact mechanisms involved are less known. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that inflammatory factors affect the cancer stem cell (CSC) compartment responsible for tumor development and relapse.

RESULTS

Using an inducible histone 2B-GFP fusion protein as a tracer of cell divisional history, we determined that tumor necrosis factor (TNF), which is a classical pro-inflammatory cytokine, enlarged the CSC pool of GFP-positive label-retaining cells (LRCs) in tumor-like melanospheres. Although these cells acquired melanoma stem cell markers, including ABCB5 and CD271, and self-renewal ability, they lost their capacity to differentiate, as evidenced by the diminished MelanA expression in melanosphere cells and the loss of pigmentation in a skin equivalent model of human melanoma. The undifferentiated cell phenotype could be reversed by LY294002, which is an inhibitor of the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway, and this reversal was accompanied by a significant reduction in CSC phenotypic markers and functional properties. Importantly, the changes induced by a transient exposure to TNF were long-lasting and observed for many generations after TNF withdrawal.

CONCLUSIONS

We conclude that pro-inflammatory TNF targets the quiescent/slow-cycling melanoma SC compartment and promotes PI3K/AKT-driven expansion of melanoma SCs most likely by preventing their asymmetrical self-renewal. This TNF effect is maintained and transferred to descendants of LRC CSCs and is manifested in the absence of TNF, suggesting that a transient exposure to inflammatory factors imprints long-lasting molecular and/or cellular changes with functional consequences long after inflammatory signal suppression. Clinically, these results may translate into an inflammation-triggered accumulation of quiescent/slow-cycling CSCs and a post-inflammatory onset of an aggressive tumor.

Genetic polymorphisms of inflammatory response gene TNF-α and its influence on sporadic pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors predisposition risk

The diagnosed incidence of pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors (pNETs) is increasing; however, their etiology remains poorly understood. PNETs are a rare, heterogeneous group of tumors arising from the endocrine cells of the pancreas, and genetic risk factors for sporadic pNETs are inadequately understood. It is known that pNETs secrete biogenic amines, hormones and growth factors, tumor necrosis factor-a (TNF-α) being one of them. Furthermore, cytokines and other proinflammatory mediators have been implicated in inflammatory pancreatic diseases including pancreatitis and cancer. The aim of our study was to analyze TNF-α promoter gene polymorphisms as risk factors for pNETs using germline DNA collected in a population-based case-control study of pancreatic cancer [42 pNET cases, 78 pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) cases, 17 intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasm (IPMN) and 98 healthy controls] conducted in the Athens, Greece and Izmir, Turkey areas. For subsequent analysis, we excluded cases and controls with known genetic syndromes. The CC genotype at the -1031 position was more frequent in pNET and IPMN patients (p=0.0002 and p=0.009, respectively), suggesting its possible role in pNET development. Furthermore, the AA genotype at the -308 position was overrepresented in IPMN cases (p=0.03), and AA genotype at the -238 position was more frequent in PDAC cases (p=0.03) compared to healthy individuals. With regard to tumor characteristics, no statistically significant association was detected. Our findings suggest the putative role of TNF-α -1031 polymorphism in the development of pNET and IPMN, whereas the -308 polymorphism seems to be overrepresented among IPMN cases and -238 polymorphism among PDAC cases.

Overall survival and clinicopathological characteristics of patients with breast cancer in relation to the expression pattern of HER-2, IL-6, TNF-α and TGF-β1

The present study was conducted to investigate the prognostic significance of co-expression patterna of HER-2, IL-6, TNF-a and TGF-β1 in breast cancer, by correlating the number of markers with positive expression with clinicopathological characteristics indicative of tumor progression and overall survival. One hundred thirty consecutive patients with primary breast cancer were prospectively included and evaluated. Serum concentrations of the above markers were measured by ELISA. Median split was used to subdivide patients with marker positive or negative expression. The presence of ≥ 3 positive markers was independently associated with extended lymph node (>3) involvement (aOR, 11.94, p=0.001) and lymphovascular invasion (aOR, 12.04, p=0.018), increasing the prognostic significance of each marker considered separately. Additional prognostic information regarding survival was also provided; as the number of positive markers increased, a gradually reduction of survival time was observed. In addition, patients with 4 positive markers had significantly shorter survival (25 vs 39 months, p=0.006) and a more than 4 fold increased risk of death (aHR, 4.35, p=0.003) compared to patients with 3 positive markers. Our findings suggest that the coexpression pattern of these four markers could be used clinically as a useful marker for tumor extension and outcome of breast cancer.

Association of TNF-α, TNFRSF1A and TNFRSF1B gene polymorphisms with the risk of sporadic breast cancer in northeast Chinese Han women

Background

The interaction of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) with its receptors: TNFRSF1A and TNFRSF1B is critical for the promotion of tumor growth, invasion and metastasis. To better understand the roles of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the TNF-α, TNFRSF1A and TNFRSF1B genes in the development of breast cancer, we explored the associations between SNPs in these three genes and breast cancer susceptibility in northeast Chinese Han women.

Methodology/Principal Findings

This case-control study was conducted among 1016 breast cancer patients and 806 age-matched healthy controls. Seven SNPs in the TNF-α (rs1800629, rs361525), TNFRSF1A (rs767455, rs4149577 and rs1800693) and TNFRSF1B (rs1061622 and rs1061624) genes were genotyped by polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) method. In TNFRSF1B, the rs1061622 GT genotype and the G allele conferred a reduced susceptibility to breast cancer (P = 0.000662, OR = 0.706, 95% CI: 0.578–0.863; P = 0.002, OR = 0.769, 95% CI; 0.654–0.905, respectively). Moreover, the AG genotype, the AA genotype and the A allele in rs1061624 conferred an increased risk of breast cancer (P = 0.007, OR = 1.470, 95% CI:1.112–1.943; P = 0.00109, OR = 1.405 95% CI:1.145–1.724; P = 0.001, OR = 1.248 95% CI:1.092–1.426, respectively). These two SNPs also had associations with breast cancer risk under the dominant model. In haplotype analysis, the CTA (rs767455 C-rs4149577 T-rs1800693 A) haplotype in TNFRSF1A and the TA (rs1061622 T-rs1061624 A) haplotype in TNFRSF1B had higher frequencies in breast cancer patients (P = 0.00324; P = 0.000370, respectively), but the frequency of GG (rs1061622 G-rs1061624 G) haplotype in TNFRSF1B was lower in breast cancer patients (P = 0.000251). The associations of the three haplotypes remained significant after correcting for multiple testing. In addition, significant associations were also observed between TNFRSF1A polymorphisms and lymph node metastasis, P53, estrogen receptor (ER) and progesterone receptor (PR) statuses.

Conclusions

Our results suggest that rs1061622 and rs1061624 in TNFRSF1B may affect breast cancer risk, and SNPs in TNFRSF1A are associated with the clinical features of breast cancer.

SAOS-2 osteosarcoma cells bind fibroblasts via ICAM-1 and this is increased by tumour necrosis factor-α

We recently reported exchange of membrane and cytoplasmic markers between SAOS-2 osteosarcoma cells and human gingival fibroblasts (h-GF) without comparable exchange of nuclear markers, while similar h-GF exchange was seen for melanoma and ovarian carcinoma cells. This process of “cellular sipping” changes phenotype such that cells sharing markers of both SAOS-2 and h-GF have morphology intermediate to that of either cell population cultured alone, evidencing increased tumour cell diversity without genetic change. TNF-α increases cellular sipping between h-GF and SAOS-2, and we here study binding of SAOS-2 to TNF-α treated h-GF to determine if increased cellular sipping can be accounted for by cytokine stimulated SAOS-2 binding. More SAOS-2 bound h-GF pe-seeded wells than culture plastic alone (p<0.001), and this was increased by h-GF pre-treatment with TNF-α (p<0.001). TNF-α stimulated binding was dose dependent and maximal at 1.16nM (p<0.05) with no activity below 0.006 nM. SAOS-2 binding to h-GF was independent of serum, while the lipopolysaccharide antagonist Polymyxin B did not affect results, and TNF-α activity was lost on boiling. h-GF binding of SAOS-2 started to increase after 30min TNF-α stimulation and was maximal by 1.5hr pre-treatment (p<0.001). h-GF retained maximal binding up to 6hrs after TNF-α stimulation, but this was lost by 18hrs (p<0.001). FACS analysis demonstrated increased ICAM-1 consistent with the time course of SAOS-2 binding, while antibody against ICAM-1 inhibited SAOS-2 adhesion (p<0.04). Pre-treating SAOS-2 with TNF-α reduced h-GF binding to background levels (p<0.003), and this opposite effect to h-GF cytokine stimulation suggests that the history of cytokine exposure of malignant cells migrating across different microenvironments can influence subsequent interactions with fibroblasts. Since cytokine stimulated binding was comparable in magnitude to earlier reported TNF-α stimulated cellular sipping, we conclude that TNF-α stimulated cellular sipping likely reflects increased SAOS-2 binding as opposed to enhanced exchange mechanisms.

Mitochondrial dysfunction in cancer

Mitochondria are semi-autonomous organelles of eukaryotic cells. They perform crucial functions such as generating most of the cellular energy through the oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) system and some other metabolic processes. In addition, mitochondria are involved in regulation of cell death and reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation. Also, mitochondria play important roles in carcinogenesis via altering energy metabolism, resistance to apoptosis, increase of production of ROS and mtDNA (mitochondrial genome) changes. Studies have suggested that aerobic glycolysis is high in malignant tumors. Probably, it correlates with high glucose intake of cancerous tissues. This observation is contrary to Warburg's theory that the main way of energy generation in cancer cells is non-oxidative glycolysis. Further studies have suggested that in tumor cells both oxidative phosphorylation and glycolysis were active at various rates.

An increase of intracellular oxidative stress induces damage of cellular structure and somatic mutations. Further studies confirmed that permanent activity of oxidative stress and the influence of chronic inflammation damage the healthy neighboring epithelium and may lead to carcinogenesis. For instance, chronic inflammatory bowel disease could be related to high risk of colon adenocarcinoma.

The data have shown a role of ROS generation, mtDNA or nDNA alterations and abnormal apoptotic machinery in endometrial cancer progress. Recent studies suggest that mtDNA mutations might play a potential role in endometrial cancer progress and indicate an increase of mitochondrial biogenesis in this cancer. The investigators suggested that MtCOI and MtND6 alteration has an influence on assembly of respiratory complexes in endometrial cancer.

In many human cancers, there is a deregulation of the balance between cell growth and death. The tumor cells can avoid apoptosis through a loss of balance between anti- and pro-apoptotic proteins, reduced caspase function and impaired death receptor signaling. Over-expression of the anti-apoptotic BCL-2 gene has also been identified in numerous cancers including colon, thyroid, breast and endometrial cancer. Most studies have found low BCL-2 family gene expression, which could be a sign of blocking apoptosis in breast and endometrial cancer. Moreover, BCL-2 gene expression is correlated with the degree of aggressiveness and differentiation in endometrial cancer. As a result, it could be a valuable predictor of disease progression.

Tumor-targeting properties of novel immunocytokines based on murine IL1β and IL6

There is an increasing biotechnological interest in 'arming' therapeutic antibodies with bioactive payloads. Many antibody-cytokine fusion proteins (immunocytokines) have been described and some of these biopharmaceuticals have progressed to clinical studies. Here, we describe for the first time the expression and in vivo characterization of immunocytokines based on murine IL1β and IL6. These potent pro-inflammatory cytokines were fused at the N-terminus or at the C-terminus of the monoclonal antibodies F8 (specific to the alternatively-spliced extra-domain A domain of fibronectin, a marker of tumor angiogenesis). All immunocytokines retained the binding properties of the parental antibody and were homogenous, when analyzed by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and size-exclusion chromatography, except for the N-terminal fusion of IL1β which revealed the presence of glycosylated species. When analyzed by quantitative biodistribution analysis using radioiodinated protein preparations, F8 fusions with IL6 revealed a preferential accumulation at the tumor site for both cytokine orientations, whereas IL1β fusions exhibited lower tumor to organ ratios and a slower blood clearance profile. The fusion proteins with the cytokine payload at the C-terminus were studied in therapy experiments in immunocompetent mice bearing F9 tumors. Immunocytokines based on IL1β resulted in 10% body weight loss at a 5-µg dose, whereas IL6-based products caused a 5% body weight loss at a 225-µg dose. Both F8-IL1β and F8-IL6 exhibited a <50% inhibition of tumor growth rate, which was substantially lower than the one previously reported for F8-TNF, a closely related pro-inflammatory immunocytokine. This study indicates that IL6 can be efficiently delivered to the tumor neo-vasculature by fusion with the F8 antibody. While F8-IL6 was not as potent as other F8-based immunocytokines that exhibit similar biodistribution profiles, the fusion protein sheds light on the different roles of pro-inflammatory cytokines in boosting immunity against the tumor.

Daidzein suppresses tumor necrosis factor-α induced migration and invasion by inhibiting hedgehog/Gli1 signaling in human breast cancer cells

In breast cancer, the cytokine tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) induces cell invasion, although the molecular basis of it has not been clearly elucidated. In this study, we investigated the role of daidzein in regulating TNF-α induced cell invasion and the underlying molecular mechanisms. Daidzein inhibited TNF-α induced cellular migration and invasion in estrogen receptor (ER) negative MCF10DCIS.com human breast cancer cells. TNF-α activated Hedgehog (Hh) signaling by enhancing Gli1 nuclear translocation and transcriptional activity, which resulted in increased invasiveness; these effects were blocked by daidzein and the Hh signaling inhibitors, cyclopamine and vismodegib. Moreover, these compounds suppressed TNF-α induced matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9 mRNA expression and activity. Taken together, mammary tumor cell invasiveness was stimulated by TNF-α induced activation of Hh signaling; these effects were abrogated by daidzein, which suppressed Gli1 activation, thereby inhibiting migration and invasion.

TNF-α and IFN-γ gene variation and genetic susceptibility to type 1 diabetes and its microangiopathic complications

Background

TNF-α has accelerating role in development of type 1 diabetes. Although an immunosupressor function and leading protecting role in T1DM also has been claimed for this pro-inflammatory cytokine. Over-expression of pro-inflammatory and type 1 cytokines (Th1, like IFN-γ) drive insulitis toward the destructive form that leads to type 1 diabetes (T1DM). Among type 1 cytokines only IFN-γ has been detectable in the islet β cells. In deletion studies IFN-γ was also the only Th1 cytokine for which its ablation or blockade caused delayed or decreased incidence of T1DM.

Methods

Functional polymorphisms of TNF-α at position -308*G/A and at position +874*T/A of IFN-γ gene were employed as markers and the comparative distribution of derived genotypes/alleles were assessed in 248 British Caucasian T1DM patients and 118 healthy controls.

Results

There was no significant association between IFN-γ gene polymorphism and T1DM or the diabetic complication triad. There was a marginal association between TNF-α –308*G/A polymorphism in nephropaths (vs healthy controls) (p = 0.06), which its insignificancy may be due to survivor factor. No significant association was evident between the genotype/allele of the applied marker and T1DM or diabetic complication triad.

Conclusion

Our results are in contrast with previous reports suggesting that these polymorphisms are not related to T1DM. This study also underlines the importance of replication of association studies to confirm the previous interpretation.

The role IL-1 in tumor-mediated angiogenesis

Tumor angiogenesis is one of the hallmarks of tumor progression and is essential for invasiveness and metastasis. Myeloid inflammatory cells, such as immature myeloid precursor cells, also termed myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), neutrophils, and monocytes/macrophages, are recruited to the tumor microenvironment by factors released by the malignant cells that are subsequently “educated” in situ to acquire a pro-invasive, pro-angiogenic, and immunosuppressive phenotype. The proximity of myeloid cells to endothelial cells (ECs) lining blood vessels suggests that they play an important role in the angiogenic response, possibly by secreting a network of cytokines/chemokines and inflammatory mediators, as well as via activation of ECs for proliferation and secretion of pro-angiogenic factors. Interleukin-1 (IL-1) is an “alarm,” upstream, pro-inflammatory cytokine that is generated primarily by myeloid cells. IL-1 initiates and propagates inflammation, mainly by inducing a local cytokine network and enhancing inflammatory cell infiltration to affected sites and by augmenting adhesion molecule expression on ECs and leukocytes. Pro-inflammatory mediators were recently shown to play an important role in tumor-mediated angiogenesis and blocking their function may suppress tumor progression. In this review, we summarize the interactions between IL-1 and other pro-angiogenic factors during normal and pathological conditions. In addition, the feasibility of IL-1 neutralization approaches for anti-cancer therapy is discussed.

TNF-α promotes gallbladder cancer cell growth and invasion through autocrine mechanisms

Tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) has been suggested to be a putative tumor promoter gene, and autocrine of TNF-α expression has been found in colon cancer and ovarian cancer. As the role of autocrine TNF-α in human gallbladder cancer has not yet been elucidated, the present study examined the expression of TNF-α in gallbladder cancer-derived cell lines. Based on the data, TNF-α mRNA and TNF-α protein expression differed significantly different between the cell lines. In addition, using siRNA targeting TNF-α, the vector, pGPU-GFP-siTNF-α, was constructed and then transfected into the SGC-996 cells (gallbladder cancer cell line) which express high levels of endogenous TNF-α. In vitro experiments indicated that the silencing of TNF-α in the SGC-996 cells significantly suppressed proliferation and invasion. However, apoptosis was not induced by the silencing of TNF-α. Furthermore, we traced the mechanisms underlying these effects and found that the silencing of TNF-α affected the TNF-α-AKT-NF-κB-Bcl-2 pathway in the SGC-996 cells. Our data provide evidence that autocrine TNF-α plays a role as a tumor promoter gene in gallbladder cancer cells, possibly by promoting proliferation and invasion through autocrine mechanisms.

Synergistic effect of interleukin-10-receptor variants in a case of early-onset ulcerative colitis

AIM: To investigated the molecular cause of very early-onset ulcerative colitis (UC) in an 18-mo-old affected child.

METHODS: We analysed the interleukin-10 (IL10) receptor genes at the DNA and RNA level in the proband and his relatives. Beta catenin and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFα) receptors were analysed in the proteins extracted from peripheral blood cells of the proband, his relatives and familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP) and PTEN hamartoma tumor syndrome (PHTS) patients. Samples were also collected from the proband’s inflamed colorectal mucosa and compared to healthy and tumour mucosa collected from a FAP patient and patients affected by sporadic colorectal cancer (CRC). Finally, we examined mesalazine and azathioprine effects on primary fibroblasts stabilised from UC and FAP patients.

RESULTS: Our patient was a compound heterozygote for the IL10RB E47K polymorphism, inherited from his father, and for a novel point mutation within the IL10RA promoter (the -413G->T), inherited from his mother. Beta catenin and tumour necrosis factor α receptors-I (TNFRI) protein were both over-expressed in peripheral blood cells of the proband’s relatives more than the proband. However, TNFRII was over-expressed only in the proband. Finally, both TNFα-receptors were shown to be under-expressed in the inflamed colon mucosa and colorectal cancer tissue compared to healthy colon mucosa. Consistent with this observation, mesalazine and azathioprine induced, in primary fibroblasts, IL10RB and TNFRII over-expression and TNFRI and TNFα under-expression. We suggest that β-catenin and TNFRI protein expression in peripheral blood cells could represent molecular markers of sub-clinical disease in apparently healthy relatives of patients with early-onset UC.

CONCLUSION: A synergistic effect of several variant alleles of the IL10 receptor genes, inherited in a Mendelian manner, is involved in UC onset in this young child.

Tumor necrosis factor receptor 2: its contribution to acute cellular rejection and clear cell renal carcinoma

Tumor necrosis factor receptor 2 (TNFR2) is a type I transmembrane glycoprotein and one of the two receptors that orchestrate the complex biological functions of tumor necrosis factor (TNF, also designed TNF-α). Accumulating experimental evidence suggests that TNFR2 plays an important role in renal disorders associated with acute cellular rejection and clear cell renal carcinoma but its exact role in these settings is still not completely understood. This papers reviews the factors that may mediate TNFR2 induction in acute cellular rejection and clear cell renal carcinoma and its contribution to these conditions and discusses its therapeutic implications. A greater understanding of the function of TNFR2 may lead to the development of new anti-TNF drugs.

Loss of p53 attenuates the contribution of IL-6 deletion on suppressed tumor progression and extended survival in Kras-driven murine lung cancer

Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is involved in lung cancer tumorigenesis, tumor progression, metastasis, and drug resistance. Previous studies show that blockade of IL-6 signaling can inhibit tumor growth and increase drug sensitivity in mouse models. Clinical trials in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) reveal that IL-6 targeted therapy relieves NSCLC-related anemia and cachexia, although other clinical effects require further study. We crossed IL-6^-/- mice with Kras^G12D mutant mice, which develop lung tumors after activation of mutant Kras^G12D, to investigate whether IL-6 inhibition contributes to tumor progression and survival time in vivo. Kras^G12D; IL-6^-/- mice exhibited increased tumorigenesis, but slower tumor growth and longer survival, than Kras^G12D mice. Further, in order to investigate whether IL-6 deletion contributes to suppression of lung cancer metastasis, we generated Kras^G12D; p53^flox/flox; IL-6^-/- mice, which developed lung cancer with a trend for reduced metastases and longer survival than Kras^G12D; p53^flox/flox mice. Tumors from Kras^G12D; IL-6^-/- mice showed increased expression of TNFα and decreased expression of CCL-19, CCL-20 and phosphorylated STAT3 (pSTAT3) than Kras^G12D mice; however, these changes were not present between tumors from Kras^G12D; p53^flox/flox; IL-6^-/- and Kras^G12D; p53^flox/flox mice. Upregulation of pSTAT3 and phosphorylated AKT (pAKT) were observed in Kras^G12D tumors with p53 deletion. Taken together, these results indicate that IL-6 deletion accelerates tumorigenesis but delays tumor progression and prolongs survival time in a Kras-driven mouse model of lung cancer. However, these effects can be attenuated by p53 deletion.

Tumor necrosis factor α induces epithelial-mesenchymal transition and promotes metastasis via NF-κB signaling pathway-mediated TWIST expression in hypopharyngeal cancer

Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is an important mechanism in cancer metastasis. Tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) can induce cancer invasion and metastasis associated with EMT. However, the underlying mechanisms are not entirely clear. Therefore, we investigated whether TNFα has an effect on EMT and invasion and metastasis in human hypopharyngeal cancer FaDu cells, and further explored the potential mechanisms. In the present study, we demonstrated that TNFα induced EMT in FaDu cells and promoted FaDu cell migration and invasion. TNFα-induced EMT was characterized by a change from well organized cell-cell adhesion and cell polarity to loss of cell-cell contacts, cell scattering and increased expression of vimentin and N-cadherin accompanied by a decrease in E-cadherin. Furthermore, we found that p65 translocated to the nucleus after TNFα stimulation and increased the nuclear expression of TWIST. We demonstrated that TNFα treatment also increased the expression of TWIST by activating the NF-κB signaling pathway. While p65 was inhibited by siRNA-65 or BAY11-7082 (inhibitor of NF-κB), TWIST expression was also decreased. Therefore, we conclude that TNFα induces EMT and promotes metastasis via NF-κB signaling pathway-mediated TWIST expression in hypopharyngeal cancer.

Interleukin-1α

Although the IL-1α molecule has long been recognized, information about its distinct role in various diseases is limited, since most clinical studies have focused on the role of IL-1β. Despite triggering the same IL-1 receptor as does IL-1β, there is, however, a distinct role for IL-1α in some inflammatory diseases. IL-1α is a unique cytokine since it is constitutively present intracellularly in nearly all resting non-hematopoietic cells in health as well as being up-regulated during hypoxia. During cell necrosis, IL-1α functions as an alarm molecule and thus plays a critical role early in inflammation. Following its release from damage tissue cells, IL-1α mediates neutrophil recruitment to the site of injury, inducing IL-1β, other cytokines and chemokines from surrounding resident cells. Another unique attribute of IL-1α is its nuclear localization sequence present in the N-terminal half of the precursor termed the propiece. The IL-1α propiece translocates into the nucleus and participates in the regulation of transcription. Therefore, IL-1α, like IL-1 family members IL-33 and IL-37, is a 'dual-function' cytokine binding to chromatin as well as to its cell surface receptor. Some cancer cells can express membrane IL-1α, which can increase immunogenicity of tumor cells and serve in anti-tumor immune surveillance and tumor regression. However, in the tumor microenvironment, precursor IL-1α released from dying tumor cells is inflammatory and, similar to IL-1β, increases tumor invasiveness and angiogenesis.

Tumor-associated neutrophils (TAN) develop pro-tumorigenic properties during tumor progression

The role and characteristics of tumor-associated neutrophils (TAN) in cancer are poorly defined. We have recently shown that TAN can have anti-tumorigenic (N1) or pro-tumorigenic (N2) functions. An interesting unanswered question is how the phenotype of TAN is influenced by the ongoing evolvement of tumor microenvironment. We therefore studied the phenotype and effects of TAN at different time points during tumor progression. We used two models of murine tumor cancer cell lines-Lewis lung carcinoma (LLC) and AB12 (mesothelioma). Neutrophils were studied at early and late stages and compared to each other and to neutrophils from bone marrow/periphery of naïve mice. Although there was no difference in the number of neutrophils entering the tumor, we found that at early stages of tumor development, neutrophils were almost exclusively at the periphery of the tumor. Only at later stages, neutrophils were also found scattered among the tumor cells. We further found that TAN from early tumors are more cytotoxic toward tumor cells and produce higher levels of TNF-α, NO and H2O2. In established tumors, these functions are down-regulated and TAN acquire a more pro-tumorigenic phenotype. In line with this phenotype, only depletion of neutrophils at later stages of tumor development inhibited tumor growth, possibly due to their central location in the tumor. Our work adds another important layer to the understanding of neutrophils in cancer by further characterizing the changes in TAN during time. Additional research on the functional role of TAN and differences between subsets of TAN is currently underway.

The immune system in the pathogenesis of ovarian cancer

Clinical outcomes in ovarian cancer are heterogeneous even when considering common features such as stage, response to therapy, and grade. This disparity in outcomes warrants further exploration into tumor and host characteristics. One compelling host characteristic is the immune response to ovarian cancer. While several studies have confirmed a prominent role for the immune system in modifying the clinical course of the disease, recent genetic and protein analyses also suggest a role in disease incidence. Recent studies also show that anti-tumor immunity is often negated by immune suppressive cells present in the tumor microenvironment. These suppressive immune cells also directly enhance the pathogenesis through the release of various cytokines and chemokines, which together form an integrated pathologic network. Thus, future research into immunotherapy targeting ovarian cancer will likely become increasingly focused on combination approaches that simultaneously augment immunity while preventing local immune suppression or by disrupting critical cytokine networks.

Proteome variations in pancreatic stellate cells upon stimulation with proinflammatory factors

Pancreatic stellate cells are key mediators in chronic pancreatitis and play a central role in the development of pancreatic fibrosis, stromal formation, and progression of pancreatic cancer. This study was aimed at investigating molecular changes at the level of the proteome that are associated with the activation of pancreatic stellate cells by proinflammatory factors, namely TNF-α, FGF2, IL6, and chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 4 (CCL4). They were added individually to cells growing in serum-free medium next to controls in medium supplemented with serum, thus containing a mixture of them all, or in serum-free medium alone. Variations were detected by means of a microarray of 810 antibodies targeting relevant proteins. All tested factors triggered increased proliferation and migration. Further analysis showed that TNF-α is the prime factor responsible for the activation of pancreatic stellate cells. CCL4 is associated with cellular neovascularization, whereas FGF2 and IL6 induction led to better cellular survival and decreased apoptotic activity of the stellate cells. The identified direct effects of individual cytokines on human pancreatic stellate cells provide new insights about their contribution to pancreatic cancer promotion.

Proteome variations in pancreatic stellate cells upon stimulation with proinflammatory factors

Pancreatic stellate cells are key mediators in chronic pancreatitis and play a central role in the development of pancreatic fibrosis, stromal formation, and progression of pancreatic cancer. This study was aimed at investigating molecular changes at the level of the proteome that are associated with the activation of pancreatic stellate cells by proinflammatory factors, namely TNF-α, FGF2, IL6, and chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 4 (CCL4). They were added individually to cells growing in serum-free medium next to controls in medium supplemented with serum, thus containing a mixture of them all, or in serum-free medium alone. Variations were detected by means of a microarray of 810 antibodies targeting relevant proteins. All tested factors triggered increased proliferation and migration. Further analysis showed that TNF-α is the prime factor responsible for the activation of pancreatic stellate cells. CCL4 is associated with cellular neovascularization, whereas FGF2 and IL6 induction led to better cellular survival and decreased apoptotic activity of the stellate cells. The identified direct effects of individual cytokines on human pancreatic stellate cells provide new insights about their contribution to pancreatic cancer promotion.

Sulindac activates NF-κB signaling in colon cancer cells

BACKGROUND

The non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) sulindac has shown efficacy in preventing colorectal cancer. This potent anti-tumorigenic effect is mediated through multiple cellular pathways but is also accompanied by gastrointestinal side effects, such as colon inflammation. We have recently shown that sulindac can cause up-regulation of pro-inflammatory factors in the mouse colon mucosa. The aim of this study was to determine the signaling pathways that mediate the transcriptional activation of pro-inflammatory cytokines in colon cancer epithelial cells treated with sulindac sulfide.

RESULTS

We found that sulindac sulfide increased NF-κB signaling in HCT-15, HCT116, SW480 and SW620 cells, although the level of induction varied between cell lines. The drug caused a decrease in IκBα levels and an increase of p65(RelA) binding to the NF-κB DNA response element. It induced expression of IL-8, ICAM1 and A20, which was inhibited by the NF-κB inhibitor PDTC. Sulindac sulfide also induced activation of the AP-1 transcription factor, which co-operated with NF-κB in up-regulating IL-8. Up-regulation of NF-κB genes was most prominent in conditions where only a subset of cells was undergoing apoptosis. In TNFα stimulated conditions the drug treatment inhibited phosphorylation on IκBα (Ser 32) which is consistent with previous studies and indicates that sulindac sulfide can inhibit TNFα-induced NF-κB activation. Sulindac-induced upregulation of NF-κB target genes occurred early in the proximal colon of mice given a diet containing sulindac for one week.

CONCLUSIONS

This study shows for the first time that sulindac sulfide can induce pro-inflammatory NF-κB and AP-1 signaling as well as apoptosis in the same experimental conditions. Therefore, these results provide insights into the effect of sulindac on pro-inflammatory signaling pathways, as well as contribute to a better understanding of the mechanism of sulindac-induced gastrointestinal side effects.

Oral caffeine during voluntary exercise markedly inhibits skin carcinogenesis and decreases inflammatory cytokines in UVB-treated mice

Ultraviolet B (UVB)-pretreated SKH-1 mice were treated with water, caffeine (0.1 mg/ml), voluntary running wheel exercise (RW) or caffeine together with RW for 14 wk. Treatment of the mice with caffeine, RW, or caffeine plus RW decreased skin tumors per mouse by 27%, 35%, and 62%, respectively, and the tumor volume per mouse was decreased by 61%, 70%, and 85%, respectively. In mechanistic studies, mice were treated with water, caffeine, RW, or caffeine plus RW for 2 wk prior to a single irradiation with UVB. Caffeine plus RW increased RW activity by 22% when compared with RW alone. Caffeine ingestion was not significantly different between groups. Treatment of mice with caffeine plus RW for 2 wk decreased the weight of the parametrial fat pads and stimulated the formation of UVB-induced apoptosis to a greater extent than treatment with caffeine or RW alone. An antibody array revealed that caffeine plus RW administered to mice fed a high-fat diet and irradiated with UVB decreased the epidermal levels of lipopolysaccharide-induced CXC chemokine, soluble TNF alpha receptor-1, and macrophage inflammatory protein-1γ. Overall, caffeine during RW exerts a stronger effect than either treatment alone for decreasing tissue fat, increasing UVB-induced apoptosis, lowering the levels of cytokines associated with inflammation and for inhibiting UVB-induced carcinogenesis.

Saussurea lappa Clarke-Derived Costunolide Prevents TNF α -Induced Breast Cancer Cell Migration and Invasion by Inhibiting NF- κ B Activity

Saussurea lappa Clarke (SLC) has been used as a traditional medicine in Korea, China, and Japan for the treatment of abdominal pain and tenesmus. Costunolide, a sesquiterpene lactone isolated from SLC, has diverse medicinal effects. However, the anticancer effects of costunolide are still unclear in breast cancer. In this study, we demonstrate that costunolide suppresses tumor growth and metastases of MDA-MB-231 highly metastatic human breast cancer cells via inhibiting TNFα-induced NF-κB activation. Costunolide inhibited MDA-MB-231 tumor growth and metastases without affecting body weights in the in vivo mouse orthotopic tumor growth assays. In addition, costunolide inhibited in vitro TNFα-induced invasion and migration of MDA-MB-231 cells. Costunolide further suppressed TNFα-induced NF-κB signaling activation, resulting in a reduced expression of MMP-9, a well-known NF-κB-dependent gene to mediate breast cancer cell growth and metastases. Therefore, we conclude that SLC and its derivative costunolide suppress breast cancer growth and metastases by inhibiting TNFα-induced NF-κB activation, suggesting that costunolide as well as SLC may be promising anticancer drugs, especially for metastatic breast cancer.

Comprehensive assessment of the association between tumor necrosis factor alpha G238A polymorphism and liver cancer risk

Tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) has been suggested to play an important role in the development and liver cancer. TNF-α 238 G/A polymorphism was hypothesized to increase the risk of liver cancer, but findings from previous studies were controversial. To explore a more precise estimation of the relationship between TNF-α 238 G/A polymorphism and liver cancer, we performed a meta-analysis. PubMed, Embase, and China Biology Medicine databases were searched for all publications on this association through March 12, 2013. Odds ratios (ORs) with its 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were used to assess the strength of this association. Eleven studies with 1,406 liver cancer cases and 2,386 noncancer controls were included into this meta-analysis. Overall, there was a significant association between TNF-α 238 G/A polymorphism and increased risk of liver cancer under all three genetic models (A vs. G, OR 1.51, 95% CI 1.20-1.89, P < 0.001, I(2) = 37.7%; AG vs. GG, OR 1.49, 95% CI 1.01-2.21, P = 0.045, I(2) = 53.2%; AA/AG vs. GG, OR 1.76, 95% CI 1.35-2.30, P < 0.001, I(2) = 36.5%). The sensitivity analysis further strengthened the validity of the positive association. Subgroup analysis of nine studies from Asian countries showed that there was a significant association between TNF-α 238 G/A polymorphism and increased risk of liver cancer in Asians (A vs. G, OR 1.35, 95% CI 1.03-1.76, P = 0.027, I(2) = 40.2%; AA/AG vs. GG, OR 1.56, 95% CI 1.14-2.15, P = 0.006, I(2) = 41.9%). In conclusion, TNF-α 238 G/A polymorphism is significantly associated with increased risk of liver cancer, especially in Asians.

Targeting of the tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily for cancer immunotherapy

The tumor necrosis factor (TNF) ligand and cognate TNF receptor superfamilies constitute an important regulatory axis that is pivotal for immune homeostasis and correct execution of immune responses. TNF ligands and receptors are involved in diverse biological processes ranging from the selective induction of cell death in potentially dangerous and superfluous cells to providing costimulatory signals that help mount an effective immune response. This diverse and important regulatory role in immunity has sparked great interest in the development of TNFL/TNFR-targeted cancer immunotherapeutics. In this review, I will discuss the biology of the most prominent proapoptotic and co-stimulatory TNF ligands and review their current status in cancer immunotherapy.

TNF-α signalling and inflammation: interactions between old acquaintances

INTRODUCTION

Inflammation is a very important part of innate immunity and is regulated in many steps. One such regulating step is the cytokine network, where tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) plays one of the most important roles.

METHODS

A PubMed and Web of Science databases search was performed for studies providing evidences on the role of TNF-α in inflammation, apoptosis, and cancer.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

This review concisely summarizes the role of this pro-inflammatory cytokine during inflammation. It is focused mainly on TNF-α intracellular signaling and its influence on the typical inflammatory features in the organism. Being one of the most important pro-inflammatory cytokines, TNF-α participates in vasodilatation and edema formation, and leukocyte adhesion to epithelium through expression of adhesion molecules; it regulates blood coagulation, contributes to oxidative stress in sites of inflammation, and indirectly induces fever. The connection between TNF-α and cancer is mentioned as well.

Low concentrations of the recombinant toxin protein rLj-RGD3 suppress TNF-α-induced human renal carcinoma cell invasion

A hallmark of renal cell carcinoma (RCC) invasion is the degradation of the extracellular matrix (ECM) by the local production of gelatinase enzymes. Matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9)-induced cancer cell invasion is one of the pivotal steps in cancer metastasis. It has been reported that tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), a regulator of MMP-9, can induce invasion in human renal carcinoma cells. Previous work in our laboratory has shown that rLj-RGD3, a recombinant RGD (Arg-Gly-Asp)-toxin protein from the buccal gland secretion of Lampetra japonica, possesses anti-tumor activity. In this study, we demonstrated that rLj-RGD3 suppressed TNF-α-induced MMP-9 secretion in 786-0 cells (human renal carcinoma cells). To investigate the regulatory effect of rLj-RGD3 on TNF-α-induced MMP-9 secretion, we pre-treated cells with rLj-RGD3. Interestingly, rLj-RGD3 had no significant effect on the constitutive secretion of MMPs. However, low concentrations of rLj-RGD3 decreased TNF-α-induced MMP-9 secretion. Functional studies revealed that rLj-RGD3 induced apoptosis and significantly inhibited the proliferation, migration, and invasion of 786-0 cells. Furthermore, the actin architecture in cells pre-treated with rLj-RGD3 was aggregated and disorganized. Our findings suggest that rLj-RGD3 may be used as a potential drug in renal cancer therapy.

In vivo modulation of iNOS pathway in hepatocellular carcinoma by Nigella sativa

OBJECTIVE

Nitric oxide (NO) and inducible nitric oxide synthase enzyme (iNOS) have been implicated in various tumors. Hepatocellular carcinoma is a highly aggressive form of solid tumor. The lack of effective therapy necessitates the introduction of novel therapeutic strategies to counter this disease. Nigella sativa (NS) has been shown to have specific health benefits. The aim of this study was to investigate the in vivo modulation of the iNOS pathway by NS ethanolic extract (NSEE) and the implications of this effect as an antitumor therapeutic approach against diethylnitrosamine (DENA)-induced hepatocarcinogenesis.

METHODS

Rats were divided into four groups, normal control, NSEE control, cancer control, and NSEE-DENA groups. The diagnosis of cancer was based on alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) levels and histological variations. Serum NO, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and interleukin-6 (IL-6) levels and serum iNOS activity were measured. Liver iNOS expression was investigated by reverse transcriptase (RT)-PCR and western blot assays.

RESULTS

Serum AFP, NO, TNF-α, and IL-6 levels and iNOS enzyme activity were significantly increased in rats treated with DENA. Significant up-regulation of liver iNOS mRNA and protein expression was also observed. Subsequent treatment with NSEE significantly reversed these effects and improved the histopathological changes in malignant liver tissue which appeared after treatment with DENA, without any toxic effect when given alone.

CONCLUSION

These results provide evidence that attenuation of the iNOS pathway and suppression of the inflammatory response mediated by TNF-α, and IL-6 could be implicated in the antitumor effect of NSEE. As such, our findings hold great promise for the utilization of NS as an effective natural therapeutic agent in the treatment of hepatocarcinogenesis.

Myeloid cell RelA/p65 promotes lung cancer proliferation through Wnt/β-catenin signaling in murine and human tumor cells

Smoking is the most important risk factor for both lung cancer (LC) and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of myeloid cell nuclear factor-κB in the regulation of tumor cell growth signaling. We subjected mice lacking myeloid RelA/p65 (rela(Δ-/-)) to a metastatic LC model. Cigarette smoke (CS) exposure significantly increased the proliferation of Lewis lung carcinoma cell tumors in wild-type mice. In CS-exposed rela(Δ-/-) mice, the tumor growth was largely inhibited. Transcriptome and pathway analysis of cancer tissue revealed a fundamental impact of myeloid cells on various growth signaling pathways, including the Wnt/β-catenin pathway. In conclusion, myeloid RelA/p65 is necessary to link smoke-induced inflammation with LC growth and has a role in the activation of Wnt/β-catenin signaling in tumor cells.

The novel SMAC mimetic birinapant exhibits potent activity against human melanoma cells

PURPOSE

Inhibitor of apoptosis proteins (IAP) promote cancer cell survival and confer resistance to therapy. We report on the ability of second mitochondria-derived activator of caspases mimetic, birinapant, which acts as antagonist to cIAP1 and cIAP2, to restore the sensitivity to apoptotic stimuli such as TNF-α in melanomas.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Seventeen melanoma cell lines, representing five major genetic subgroups of cutaneous melanoma, were treated with birinapant as a single agent or in combination with TNF-α. Effects on cell viability, target inhibition, and initiation of apoptosis were assessed and findings were validated in 2-dimensional (2D), 3D spheroid, and in vivo xenograft models.

RESULTS

When birinapant was combined with TNF-α, strong combination activity, that is, neither compound was effective individually but the combination was highly effective, was observed in 12 of 18 cell lines. This response was conserved in spheroid models, whereas in vivo birinapant inhibited tumor growth without adding TNF-α in in vitro resistant cell lines. Birinapant combined with TNF-α inhibited the growth of a melanoma cell line with acquired resistance to BRAF inhibition to the same extent as in the parental cell line.

CONCLUSIONS

Birinapant in combination with TNF-α exhibits a strong antimelanoma effect in vitro. Birinapant as a single agent shows in vivo antitumor activity, even if cells are resistant to single agent therapy in vitro. Birinapant in combination with TNF-α is effective in a melanoma cell line with acquired resistance to BRAF inhibitors.