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Araujo da Silva AR, Marques A, Di Biase C, Faitanin M, Murni I, Dramowski A, Hübner J, Zingg W. Effectiveness of antimicrobial stewardship programmes in neonatology: a systematic review. Arch Dis Child 2020; 105:563-568. [PMID: 32156697 DOI: 10.1136/archdischild-2019-318026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2019] [Revised: 12/18/2019] [Accepted: 02/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Antimicrobial stewardship programmes (ASPs) are recommended to improve antibiotic use in healthcare and reduce antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Our aim was to investigate the effectiveness of ASPs in reducing antibiotic consumption, use of broad-spectrum/restricted antibiotics, antibiotic resistance and healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) in neonates. METHODS We searched PUBMED, SCIELO, EMBASE and the Cochrane Database (January 2000-April 2019) to identify studies on the effectiveness of ASPs in neonatal wards and/or neonatal intensive care units (NICUs). Outcomes were as follows: reduction of antibiotic consumption overall and of broad-spectrum/target antibiotics, inappropriate antibiotic use, antibiotic resistance and HAIs. ASPs conducted in settings other than acute care hospitals, for children older than 1 month, and ASPs addressing antifungal and antiviral agents, were excluded. RESULTS The initial search identified 53 173 titles and abstracts; following the application of filters and inclusion criteria, a total of six publications were included in the final analysis. All studies, of which one was multi-centre study, were published after 2010. Five studies were conducted exclusively in NICUs. Four articles applied multimodal interventions. Reduction of antibiotic consumption overall and/or inappropriate antibiotic use were reported by four articles; reduction of broad-spectrum/targeted antibiotics were reported by four studies; No article evaluated the impact of ASPs on AMR or the incidence of HAI in neonates. CONCLUSION ASPs can be effectively applied in neonatal settings. Limiting the use of broad-spectrum antibiotics and shorting the duration of antibiotic treatment are the most promising approaches. The impact of ASPs on AMR and HAI needs to be evaluated in long-term studies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Amanda Marques
- Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niteroi, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Clara Di Biase
- Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niteroi, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Monique Faitanin
- Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niteroi, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Indah Murni
- Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Daerah Istimewa Yogyakart, Indonesia
| | | | - Johannes Hübner
- University Children's Hospital at Dr. von Haunersches Kinderspital, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Walter Zingg
- Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland
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102
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph Y Ting
- Department of Paediatrics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Prakesh S Shah
- Department of Paediatrics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
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103
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Dretvik T, Solevåg AL, Finvåg A, Størdal EH, Størdal K, Klingenberg C. Active antibiotic discontinuation in suspected but not confirmed early-onset neonatal sepsis-A quality improvement initiative. Acta Paediatr 2020; 109:1125-1130. [PMID: 31999863 DOI: 10.1111/apa.15202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2019] [Revised: 12/25/2019] [Accepted: 01/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
AIM To study whether a simple targeted intervention could reduce unwarranted antibiotic treatment in near-term and term neonates with suspected, but not confirmed early-onset sepsis. METHODS A quality improvement initiative in three Norwegian neonatal intensive care units. The intervention included an inter-hospital clinical practice guideline for discontinuing antibiotics after 36-48 hours if sepsis was no longer suspected and blood cultures were negative in neonates ≥ 34+0 weeks of gestation. Two units used procalcitonin in decision-making. We compared data 12-14 months before and after guideline implementation. The results are presented as median with interquartile ranges. RESULTS A total of 284 infants (2.5% of all births ≥ 34+0 weeks of gestation) received antibiotics before and 195 (1.8%) after guideline implementation (P = .0018). The two units that used procalcitonin discontinued antibiotics earlier after guideline implementation than the unit without procalcitonin. Neonates not diagnosed with sepsis were treated 49 (31-84) hours before and 48 (36-72) hours after guideline implementation (P = .68). In all infants, including those diagnosed with sepsis, antibiotic treatment duration was reduced from 108 (60-144) to 96 (48-120) hours (P = .013). CONCLUSION Antibiotic treatment duration for suspected, but not confirmed early-onset sepsis did not change. However, treatment duration for all infants and the proportion of infants commenced on antibiotics were reduced.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Dretvik
- Department of Paediatric and Adolescent Medicine Akershus University Hospital Lørenskog Norway
| | - Anne Lee Solevåg
- Department of Paediatric and Adolescent Medicine Akershus University Hospital Lørenskog Norway
| | - Andreas Finvåg
- Paediatric Research Group Faculty of Health Sciences UiT‐The Arctic University of Norway Tromsø Norway
| | | | - Ketil Størdal
- Paediatric Department Ostfold Hospital Trust Fredrikstad Norway
- Department of non‐communicable diseases Norwegian Institute of Public Health Oslo Norway
| | - Claus Klingenberg
- Paediatric Research Group Faculty of Health Sciences UiT‐The Arctic University of Norway Tromsø Norway
- Department of Paediatrics and Adolescence Medicine University Hospital of North Norway Tromsø Norway
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104
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CLINICAL AND MICROBIOLOGICAL FEATURES OF EARLY-ONSET NEONATAL SEPSIS IN PRETERM INFANTS. EUREKA: HEALTH SCIENCES 2020. [DOI: 10.21303/2504-5679.2020.001284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Early-onset neonatal sepsis (EONS) remains the leading cause of morbidity and mortality, especially among premature infants. Conducting high-quality epidemiological monitoring is an important condition for effective tactics treatment neonatal infections and improving the quality of medical care for this category of newborn.
The aim. Determination of the value of microbiological triggers in the blood in various clinical options for EONS in preterm infants.
Materials and methods. Clinical and microbiological data on 50 prematurely born newborns with EONS were selected. The analysis of the frequency of detected bacteremia, the distribution of pathogenic microorganisms and the clinical characteristics of neonatal sepsis.
Results. In the study, sources of infection were detected in 94 % of cases. Positive blood cultures were obtained in 17 (34 %) newborns with EONS. 61.5 % of all cases of bacteremia were caused by coagulase-negative staphylococcus (CoNS). Gram-negative pathogens were detected in 23.5 % of positive blood cultures, representatives of this group were Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumonia. The overall mortality rate from EONS was 30 %.
Conclusions. The incidence of sepsis confirmed by a positive blood culture was 34 %. The most common cause of EONS is CoNS, low incidence of group B Streptococcus sepsis has been established. The most frequent septicopymic sources of infection were the lungs, which is expressed in the high incidence (94 %) of X-ray pneumonia in the structure of the EONS.
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105
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Klatte JM, Knee A, Szczerba F, Horton ER, Kopcza K, Fisher DJ. Identification of High-Yield Targets for Antimicrobial Stewardship Program Efforts Within a Nonfreestanding Children's Hospital. Hosp Pediatr 2020; 9:355-364. [PMID: 31003995 DOI: 10.1542/hpeds.2018-0254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Identify diagnoses with the highest likelihood of prompting antimicrobial stewardship program (ASP) recommendations and lowest probability of recommendation acceptance, investigate the impact of provider years in practice on recommendation receipt and acceptance, and simultaneously assess the influence of patient and provider-level variables associated with recommendations within a nonfreestanding children's hospital. METHODS Retrospective cohort study of antibiotic courses reviewed by the ASP staff from December 1, 2014 to November 30, 2016. Poisson regression was used to detect associations between diagnoses, provider years in practice, and the probability of recommendation receipt and acceptance. Multivariable logistic regression was used to simultaneously examine the influence of patient and provider-level characteristics on recommendation probability. RESULTS A total of 938 inpatient encounters and 1170 antibiotic courses were included. Diagnoses were associated with provider receipt (P < .001) and acceptance (P < .001) of recommendations, with ear, nose, and throat and/or sinopulmonary diagnoses most likely to prompt recommendations (56%; 95% confidence interval [CI], 48-64) and recommendations for neonatal and/or infant diagnoses accepted least often (67%; 95% CI, 58-76). No associations were initially found between provider experience and recommendation receipt or acceptance, although multivariable analysis revealed a trend between increasing years in practice and recommendation likelihood (P = .001). Vancomycin usage (64%; 95% CI, 56-72) and ear, nose, and throat and/or sinopulmonary diagnoses (56%; 95% CI, 47-65) had the highest probability of a recommendation. Sensitivity analyses revealed that use of diagnosis-related clinical practice guidelines decreased recommendations and increased acceptance rates, especially for the surgery diagnosis category. CONCLUSIONS High-yield targets for ASP activities at our nonfreestanding children's hospital were identified. Clinical practice guidelines have the potential to decrease ASP workload, and their development should be particularly encouraged for ASPs with limited resources.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Michael Klatte
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Infectious Diseases, .,University of Massachusetts Medical School-Baystate, Springfield, Massachusetts
| | - Alexander Knee
- University of Massachusetts Medical School-Baystate, Springfield, Massachusetts.,Office of Research, Baystate Medical Center, Springfield, Massachusetts.,Department of Medicine, and
| | - Frank Szczerba
- Department of Pharmacy Services, Baystate Health, Springfield, Massachusetts; and
| | - Evan R Horton
- Department of Pharmacy Services, Baystate Health, Springfield, Massachusetts; and.,Massachusetts College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Worcester, Massachusetts
| | - Kathleen Kopcza
- Department of Pharmacy Services, Baystate Health, Springfield, Massachusetts; and
| | - Donna J Fisher
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Infectious Diseases.,University of Massachusetts Medical School-Baystate, Springfield, Massachusetts
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106
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Raju V, Pournami F, Nandakumar A, Prabhakar J, Nair PMC, Jain N. Improving Microbe Detection and Optimizing Antibiotic Use in Neonatal Sepsis With Multiplex Polymerase Chain Reaction. INFECTIOUS DISEASES IN CLINICAL PRACTICE 2020. [DOI: 10.1097/ipc.0000000000000836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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107
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Hill LF, Turner MA, Lutsar I, Heath PT, Hardy P, Linsell L, Jacqz-Aigrain E, Roilides E, Sharland M. An optimised dosing regimen versus a standard dosing regimen of vancomycin for the treatment of late onset sepsis due to Gram-positive microorganisms in neonates and infants aged less than 90 days (NeoVanc): study protocol for a randomised controlled trial. Trials 2020; 21:329. [PMID: 32293527 PMCID: PMC7158076 DOI: 10.1186/s13063-020-4184-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2019] [Accepted: 02/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Vancomycin has been used in clinical practice for over 50 years; however, validated, pharmacokinetic (PK) data relating clinical outcomes to different dosing regimens in neonates are lacking. Coagulase negative staphylococci (CoNS) are the most commonly isolated organisms in neonatal, late-onset sepsis (LOS). Optimised use to maximise efficacy while minimising toxicity and resistance selection is imperative to ensure vancomycin's continued efficacy. METHODS NeoVanc is a European, open-label, Phase IIb, randomised, controlled, non-inferiority trial comparing an optimised vancomycin regimen to a standard vancomycin regimen when treating LOS known/suspected to be caused by Gram-positive organisms (excluding Staphylococcus aureus) in infants aged ≤ 90 days. Three hundred infants will be recruited and randomised in a 1:1 ratio. Infants can be recruited if they have culture confirmed (a positive culture from a normally sterile site and at least one clinical/laboratory criterion) or clinical sepsis (presence of any ≥ 3 clinical/laboratory criteria) in the 24 h before randomisation. The optimised regimen consists of a vancomycin loading dose (25 mg/kg) followed by 5 ± 1 days of 15 mg/kg q12h or q8h, dependent on postmenstrual age (PMA). The standard regimen is a 10 ± 2 day vancomycin course at 15 mg/kg q24h, q12h or q8h, dependent on PMA. The primary endpoint is a successful outcome at the test of cure visit (10 ± 1 days after the end of vancomycin therapy). A successful outcome consists of the patient being alive, having successfully completed study vancomycin therapy and having not had a clinical/microbiological relapse/new infection requiring treatment with vancomycin or other anti-staphylococcal antibiotic for > 24 h. Secondary endpoints include clinical/microbiological relapse/new infection at the short-term follow-up visit (30 ± 5 days after the initiation of vancomycin), evaluation of safety (renal/hearing), vancomycin PK and assessment of a host biomarker panel over the course of vancomycin therapy. DISCUSSION Based on previous pre-clinical data and a large meta-analysis of neonatal, PK/pharmacodynamic data, NeoVanc was set up to provide evidence on whether a loading dose followed by a short vancomycin course is non-inferior, regarding efficacy, when compared to a standard, longer course. If non-inferiority is demonstrated, this would support adoption of the optimised regimen as a way of safely reducing vancomycin exposure when treating neonatal, Gram-positive LOS. TRIAL REGISTRATION ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT02790996. Registered on 7 April 2016. EudraCT, 2015-000203-89. Entered on 18 July 2016.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louise F Hill
- Paediatric Infectious Diseases Research Group, Institute for Infection & Immunity, St George's, University of London, London, UK. .,UCL Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, London, UK.
| | - Mark A Turner
- Institute of Translational Medicine, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | | | - Paul T Heath
- Paediatric Infectious Diseases Research Group, Institute for Infection & Immunity, St George's, University of London, London, UK
| | - Pollyanna Hardy
- Birmingham Clinical Trials Unit, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | | | - Evelyne Jacqz-Aigrain
- Department of Pediatric Pharmacology and Pharmacogenetics, Hôpital Robert Debré, Paris, France
| | - Emmanuel Roilides
- 3rd Department of Pediatrics, Aristotle University, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Mike Sharland
- Paediatric Infectious Diseases Research Group, Institute for Infection & Immunity, St George's, University of London, London, UK
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108
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Flannery DD, Mukhopadhyay S, Jensen EA, Gerber JS, Passarella MR, Dysart K, Aghai ZH, Greenspan J, Puopolo KM. Influence of Patient Characteristics on Antibiotic Use Rates Among Preterm Infants. J Pediatric Infect Dis Soc 2020; 10:97-103. [PMID: 32170951 PMCID: PMC7996645 DOI: 10.1093/jpids/piaa022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2019] [Accepted: 02/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The antibiotic use rate (AUR) has emerged as a potential metric for neonatal antibiotic use, but reported center-level AURs are limited by differences in case mix. The objective of this study was to identify patient characteristics associated with AUR among a large cohort of preterm infants. METHODS Retrospective observational study using the Optum Neonatal Database, including infants born from January 1, 2010 through November 30, 2016 with gestational age 23-34 weeks admitted to neonatal units across the United States. Exposures were patient-level characteristics including length of stay, gestational age, sex, race/ethnicity, bacterial sepsis, necrotizing enterocolitis, and survival status. The primary outcome was AUR, defined as days with ≥ 1 systemic antibiotic administered divided by length of stay. Descriptive statistics, univariable comparative analyses, and generalized linear models were utilized. RESULTS Of 17 910 eligible infants, 17 836 infants (99.6%) from 1090 centers were included. Median gestation was 32.9 (interquartile range [IQR], 30.3-34) weeks. Median length of stay was 25 (IQR, 15-46) days and varied by gestation. Overall median AUR was 0.13 (IQR, 0-0.26) and decreased over time. Gestational age, sex, and race/ethnicity were independently associated with AUR (P < .01). AUR and gestational age had an unexpected inverse parabolic relationship, which persisted when only surviving infants without bacterial sepsis or necrotizing enterocolitis were analyzed. CONCLUSIONS Neonatal AURs are influenced by patient-level characteristics besides infection and survival status, including gestational age, sex, and race/ethnicity. Neonatal antibiotic use metrics that account for patient-level characteristics as well as morbidity case mix may allow for more accurate comparisons and better inform neonatal antibiotic stewardship efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dustin D Flannery
- Center for Pediatric Clinical Effectiveness, Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA,Division of Neonatology, Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia/University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA,Corresponding Author: Dustin D. Flannery, DO, Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia Newborn Care at Pennsylvania Hospital, 800 Spruce St, Philadelphia, PA 19107. E-mail:
| | - Sagori Mukhopadhyay
- Center for Pediatric Clinical Effectiveness, Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA,Division of Neonatology, Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia/University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Erik A Jensen
- Center for Pediatric Clinical Effectiveness, Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA,Division of Neonatology, Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia/University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Jeffrey S Gerber
- Center for Pediatric Clinical Effectiveness, Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA,Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia/University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Molly R Passarella
- Division of Neonatology, Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia/University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Kevin Dysart
- Division of Neonatology, Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia/University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Zubair H Aghai
- Division of Neonatology, Nemours/Thomas Jefferson University Hospital, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Jay Greenspan
- Division of Neonatology, Nemours/Thomas Jefferson University Hospital, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Karen M Puopolo
- Center for Pediatric Clinical Effectiveness, Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA,Division of Neonatology, Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia/University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
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109
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Abstract
BACKGROUND Culture-negative late-onset sepsis (LOS) is commonly diagnosed in neonatal intensive care units, while the outcomes of neonatal culture-negative LOS are not reported for large cohorts. This study aimed to examine the incidence and neonatal outcomes for culture-negative LOS in a contemporary multicenter cohort of preterm infants. METHODS We performed a retrospective analysis of data from a cluster-randomized controlled study. Infants <34 weeks of gestation and admitted to 25 neonatal intensive care units between May 1, 2015, and April 30, 2018, were included. Culture-negative LOS was diagnosed if infants had abnormal manifestations and laboratory tests but negative blood cultures. The primary outcome was a composite of mortality or morbidities including periventricular leukomalacia (PVL), retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) ≥ stage 3 or bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD). RESULTS Of 22,346 eligible infants, 1505 (6.7%) infants had culture-negative and 761 (3.4%) infants had culture-positive LOS. Compared with infants without LOS, infants with culture-negative LOS had higher rates of composite outcome (24.1% vs. 9.6%), death (3.8% vs. 1.8%), PVL (4.8% vs. 2.2%), severe ROP (3.3% vs. 1.1%) and BPD (18.1% vs. 7.0%). After adjustment, culture-negative LOS was independently associated with increased risk of composite outcome {adjusted odds ratio [aOR]: 1.8 [95% confidence interval (CI): 1.5-2.1]}, PVL [aOR: 2.0 (95% CI: 1.4-2.8)] and BPD [aOR: 1.8 (95% CI: 1.5-2.2)] relative to the absence of LOS. CONCLUSION Culture-negative LOS was frequently diagnosed in preterm infants and was associated with increased risks of adverse outcomes. There is an emerging need for more precise diagnosis and treatment strategies for culture-negative LOS.
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110
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph B Cantey
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas Health, San Antonio.,Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, University of Texas Health, San Antonio.,Division of Neonatology, University of Texas Health, San Antonio
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111
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Donà D, Barbieri E, Daverio M, Lundin R, Giaquinto C, Zaoutis T, Sharland M. Implementation and impact of pediatric antimicrobial stewardship programs: a systematic scoping review. Antimicrob Resist Infect Control 2020; 9:3. [PMID: 31911831 PMCID: PMC6942341 DOI: 10.1186/s13756-019-0659-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2019] [Accepted: 11/26/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Antibiotics are the most common medicines prescribed to children in hospitals and the community, with a high proportion of potentially inappropriate use. Antibiotic misuse increases the risk of toxicity, raises healthcare costs, and selection of resistance. The primary aim of this systematic review is to summarize the current state of evidence of the implementation and outcomes of pediatric antimicrobial stewardship programs (ASPs) globally. Methods MEDLINE, Embase and Cochrane Library databases were systematically searched to identify studies reporting on ASP in children aged 0-18 years and conducted in outpatient or in-hospital settings. Three investigators independently reviewed identified articles for inclusion and extracted relevant data. Results Of the 41,916 studies screened, 113 were eligible for inclusion in this study. Most of the studies originated in the USA (52.2%), while a minority were conducted in Europe (24.7%) or Asia (17.7%). Seventy-four (65.5%) studies used a before-and-after design, and sixteen (14.1%) were randomized trials. The majority (81.4%) described in-hospital ASPs with half of interventions in mixed pediatric wards and ten (8.8%) in emergency departments. Only sixteen (14.1%) studies focused on the costs of ASPs. Almost all the studies (79.6%) showed a significant reduction in inappropriate prescriptions. Compliance after ASP implementation increased. Sixteen of the included studies quantified cost savings related to the intervention with most of the decreases due to lower rates of drug administration. Seven studies showed an increased susceptibility of the bacteria analysed with a decrease in extended spectrum beta-lactamase producers E. coli and K. pneumoniae; a reduction in the rate of P. aeruginosa carbapenem resistance subsequent to an observed reduction in the rate of antimicrobial days of therapy; and, in two studies set in outpatient setting, an increase in erythromycin-sensitive S. pyogenes following a reduction in the use of macrolides. Conclusions Pediatric ASPs have a significant impact on the reduction of targeted and empiric antibiotic use, healthcare costs, and antimicrobial resistance in both inpatient and outpatient settings. Pediatric ASPs are now widely implemented in the USA, but considerable further adaptation is required to facilitate their uptake in Europe, Asia, Latin America and Africa.
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Affiliation(s)
- D. Donà
- Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Department for Woman and Child Health, University of Padua, Via Giustiniani 3, 35141 Padua, Italy
- Pediatric Infectious Disease Research Group, Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George’s University of London, London, UK
- Fondazione Penta ONLUS, Padua, Italy
| | - E. Barbieri
- Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Department for Woman and Child Health, University of Padua, Via Giustiniani 3, 35141 Padua, Italy
| | - M. Daverio
- Pediatric intensive care unit, Department for Woman and Child Health, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | - R. Lundin
- Fondazione Penta ONLUS, Padua, Italy
| | - C. Giaquinto
- Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Department for Woman and Child Health, University of Padua, Via Giustiniani 3, 35141 Padua, Italy
- Fondazione Penta ONLUS, Padua, Italy
| | - T. Zaoutis
- Fondazione Penta ONLUS, Padua, Italy
- Division of Infectious Diseases and the Center for Pediatric Clinical Effectiveness, Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA USA
| | - M. Sharland
- Pediatric Infectious Disease Research Group, Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George’s University of London, London, UK
- Fondazione Penta ONLUS, Padua, Italy
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112
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Wang B, Li G, Jin F, Weng J, Peng Y, Dong S, Liu J, Luo J, Wu H, Shen Y, Meng Y, Wang X, Hei M. Effect of Weekly Antibiotic Round on Antibiotic Use in the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit as Antibiotic Stewardship Strategy. Front Pediatr 2020; 8:604244. [PMID: 33384975 PMCID: PMC7769868 DOI: 10.3389/fped.2020.604244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2020] [Accepted: 11/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Antibiotics are commonly used in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU). The objective was to observe the effect of weekly antibiotic round in NICU (WARN) to the antibiotic use in NICU. Methods: A retrospective observational study was performed. Departmental-level diagnosis categories and the parameters of antibiotic usage in NICU for the period of 2016-2017 (Phase 1) and 2018-2019 (Phase 2) were collected. WARN in NICU was started since January 2018. A time series forecasting was used to predict the quarterly antibiotic use in Phase 2, based on data from Phase 1. The actual antibiotic use of each quarter in Phase 2 was compared with the predicted values. Results: Totally 9297 neonates were included (4743 in Phase 1, 4488 in Phase 2). The composition of the disease spectrum between Phase 1 and Phase 2 was not different (P > 0.05). In Phase 1 and Phase 2, the overall antibiotic rate was 94.4 and 74.2%, the average accumulative defined daily dose per month was 199.00 ± 55.77 and 66.80 ± 45.64, the median antibiotic use density per month was 10.31 (9.00-13.27) and 2.48 (1.92-4.66), the median accumulative defined daily dose per case per month was 0.10 (0.09-0.13) and 0.03 (0.02-0.47), the number of patients who received any kind of antibiotic per 1000 hospital days per month was 103.45 (99.30-107.48) and 78.66 (74.62-82.77), rate of culture investigation before antibiotics was 64 to 92%, respectively, and all were better than the predicted values (P < 0.01). Conclusion: The implementation of periodical antibiotic rounds was effective in reducing the antibiotics use in the NICU.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Wang
- Neonatal Center, Beijing Children's Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Geng Li
- Neonatal Center, Beijing Children's Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Neonatal Center, National Center for Child Health, Beijing, China
| | - Fei Jin
- Neonatal Center, Beijing Children's Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Neonatal Center, National Center for Child Health, Beijing, China
| | - Jingwen Weng
- Neonatal Center, Beijing Children's Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Neonatal Center, National Center for Child Health, Beijing, China
| | - Yaguang Peng
- Neonatal Center, National Center for Child Health, Beijing, China.,Center for Clinical Epidemiology and Evidence-Based Medicine, Beijing Children's Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Shixiao Dong
- Neonatal Center, Beijing Children's Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Neonatal Center, National Center for Child Health, Beijing, China
| | - Jingyuan Liu
- Neonatal Center, Beijing Children's Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Neonatal Center, National Center for Child Health, Beijing, China
| | - Jie Luo
- Neonatal Center, Beijing Children's Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Neonatal Center, National Center for Child Health, Beijing, China
| | - Hailan Wu
- Neonatal Center, Beijing Children's Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Neonatal Center, National Center for Child Health, Beijing, China
| | - Yanhua Shen
- Neonatal Center, Beijing Children's Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Neonatal Center, National Center for Child Health, Beijing, China
| | - Yao Meng
- Neonatal Center, National Center for Child Health, Beijing, China.,Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Beijing Children's Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaoling Wang
- Neonatal Center, National Center for Child Health, Beijing, China.,Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Beijing Children's Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Mingyan Hei
- Neonatal Center, Beijing Children's Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Neonatal Center, National Center for Child Health, Beijing, China
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113
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Giannoni E, Schlapbach LJ. Editorial: Sepsis in Neonates and Children. Front Pediatr 2020; 8:621663. [PMID: 33330295 PMCID: PMC7728741 DOI: 10.3389/fped.2020.621663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2020] [Accepted: 11/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Eric Giannoni
- Department Mother-Woman-Child, Clinic of Neonatology, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Luregn J Schlapbach
- Child Health Research Centre, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia.,Paediatric Intensive Care Unit, Queensland Children's Hospital, Brisbane, QLD, Australia.,Pediatric and Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, Children's Research Center, University Children's Hospital Zurich and University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Gustavsson L, Lindquist S, Elfvin A, Hentz E, Studahl M. Reduced antibiotic use in extremely preterm infants with an antimicrobial stewardship intervention. BMJ Paediatr Open 2020; 4:e000872. [PMID: 33324764 PMCID: PMC7722820 DOI: 10.1136/bmjpo-2020-000872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2020] [Revised: 11/09/2020] [Accepted: 11/15/2020] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Excessive administration of antibiotics to preterm infants is associated with increased rates of complications. The purpose of the study was to evaluate the effect of an antimicrobial stewardship intervention on antibiotic use in extremely preterm infants. DESIGN SETTING PATIENTS AND INTERVENTION A before and after study of infants born at ≤28 weeks' gestational age was performed in the neonatal intensive care unit of Queen Silvia's Children's Hospital, Gothenburg, Sweden. Retrospective analysis of the baseline period (January-December 2014) guided the development of a limited antimicrobial stewardship intervention. The intervention consisted of updated local guidelines with a focus on shortened and standardised treatment duration plus increased access to infectious disease consultant advice. It was fully implemented during the intervention period (October 2017-September 2018). OBJECTIVE Primary aim was to compare antibiotic use, defined as antibiotic treatment days per 1000 patient-days, between the two periods, and the secondary aim was to evaluate the number of days with meropenem-based regimens before and after the intervention. RESULTS We included 145 infants with a median birth weight of 870 g and median gestational age of 26 weeks. The baseline period comprised 82 infants and 3478 patient-days, the intervention period comprised 63 infants and 2753 patient-days. Overall antibiotic use (treatment and prophylaxis) was 534 versus 466 days per 1000 patient-days during the baseline and intervention periods, respectively. Antibiotic treatment days decreased from 287 to 197 days per 1000 patient-days. The proportion of meropenem-based regimens was 69% versus 44%, respectively. No increases in mortality or reinitiation of antibiotics were seen. CONCLUSIONS Implementation of a limited antimicrobial stewardship intervention anchored in analysis of previous prescription patterns can contribute to safe decreases in antibiotic use in extremely preterm infants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lars Gustavsson
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Simon Lindquist
- Department of Paediatrics, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Anders Elfvin
- Department of Paediatrics, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg, Sweden.,Department of Paediatrics, Institute of Clinical Sciences, University of Gothenburg Sahlgrenska Academy, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Elisabet Hentz
- Department of Paediatrics, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Marie Studahl
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg, Sweden.,Department of Infectious Diseases, Institute of Biomedicine, University of Gothenburg Sahlgrenska Academy, Gothenburg, Sweden
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Rajar P, Saugstad OD, Berild D, Dutta A, Greisen G, Lausten-Thomsen U, Mande SS, Nangia S, Petersen FC, Dahle UR, Haaland K. Antibiotic Stewardship in Premature Infants: A Systematic Review. Neonatology 2020; 117:673-686. [PMID: 33271554 DOI: 10.1159/000511710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2020] [Accepted: 09/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Antibiotic treatment in premature infants is often empirically prescribed, and practice varies widely among otherwise comparable neonatal intensive care units. Unnecessary and prolonged antibiotic treatment is documented in numerous studies. Recent research shows serious side effects and suggests long-term adverse health effects in prematurely born infants exposed to antibiotics in early life. One preventive measure to reduce unnecessary antibiotic exposure is implementation of antibiotic stewardship programs. Our objective was to review the literature on implemented antibiotic stewardship programs including premature infants with gestational age ≤34 weeks. METHODS Six academic databases (PubMed [Medline], McMaster PLUS, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, UpToDate, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, and National Institute for Health and Care Excellence) were systematically searched. PRISMA guidelines were applied. RESULTS The search retrieved 1,212 titles of which 12 fitted inclusion criteria (11 observational studies and 1 randomized clinical trial). Included articles were critically appraised. We grouped the articles according to common area of implemented stewardship actions: (1) focus on reducing initiation of antibiotic therapy, (2) focus on shortening duration of antibiotic therapy, (3) various organizational stewardship implementations. The heterogeneity of cohort composition, of implemented actions and of outcome measures made meta-analysis inappropriate. We provide an overview of the reduction in antibiotic use achieved. CONCLUSION Antibiotic stewardship programs can be effective for premature newborns especially when multifactorial and tailored to this population, focusing on reducing initiation or on shortening the duration of antibiotic therapy. Programs without specific measures were less effective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Polona Rajar
- Department of Paediatrics, Oslo University Hospital Ullevål, Oslo, Norway.,Institute of Oral Biology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Ola D Saugstad
- Department of Paediatric Research, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Dag Berild
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway.,Institute of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Oslo University, Oslo, Norway
| | - Anirban Dutta
- TCS Research, Tata Consultancy Services Ltd, Pune, India
| | - Gorm Greisen
- Department of Neonatology, Copenhagen University Hospital Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Ulrik Lausten-Thomsen
- Department of Neonatology, Copenhagen University Hospital Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | | | - Sushma Nangia
- Lady Hardinge Medical College and Kalawati Saran Hospital, New Delhi, India
| | | | - Ulf R Dahle
- Centre for Antimicrobial Resistance, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
| | - Kirsti Haaland
- Department of Paediatrics, Oslo University Hospital Ullevål, Oslo, Norway,
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117
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Araujo da Silva AR, Jaszkowski E, Schober T, von Both U, Meyer-Buehn M, Marques AF, Farkas B, de Abreu BS, di Biase CB, Takahashi JM, de Castro LD, Leal IA, Teixeira CH, Nussbaum CF, Hoffmann F, Hübner J. Patterns of antimicrobial consumption in neonatal and pediatric intensive care units in Germany and Brazil. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2019; 39:249-255. [PMID: 31673879 DOI: 10.1007/s10096-019-03714-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2019] [Accepted: 09/16/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Antibiotic consumption (AC) is a key component of antimicrobial stewardship programs to recognize local patterns of antibiotic use. Our aim was to measure AC in neonatal units, including neonatal (NICU)/paediatric (PICU) intensive care units in different countries. We conducted a multicenter, retrospective, cohort study in three NICUs, one neonatal ward, and three PICUs with a total of 84 beds. Global and individual AC in days of therapy (DOT) and DOT per 1000 patient-days were assessed. During the study period, 2567 patients were admitted, corresponding to 4961 patient-days in neonatal units and 9243 patient-days in PICUs. Multidrug-resistant Gram-negative bacteria and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus were more frequent in Brazil than in Germany. Average AC was 386.5 and 1335.5 DOT/1000PD in German and Brazilian neonatal units, respectively. Aminopenicillins plus 3rd generation cephalosporins were the most commonly prescribed antibiotics in German neonatal units, while aminopenicillins plus aminoglycosides were the class most commonly used in Brazilian NICU. Average AC was 888.1 and 1440.7 DOT/1000PD in German and Brazilian PICUs, respectively. Antipseudomonal penicillins were most commonly used in the German PICU, and glycopeptides were the most frequently prescribed in Brazilian PICUs. Carbapenems represented 2.3-14% of total DOTs in German neonatal units and 4% in the Brazilian NICU and 13.0% in the German PICU and 6-12.2% in Brazilian PICUs. We concluded that different patterns of most commonly prescribed antibiotics were observed in neonatal units and PICUs in these two countries, probably related to different local patterns of antibiotic resistance, with a higher antibiotic consumption in Brazilian study units.
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Affiliation(s)
- André Ricardo Araujo da Silva
- Materno-Infantil Departament, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Rua Marquês do Paraná 303, Niterói, RJ, 24033-900, Brazil.
| | - Elena Jaszkowski
- Infectiology Service, Dr. von Hauner Children's Hospital, LMU Munich, 80337, Munich, Germany
| | - Tilmann Schober
- Infectiology Service, Dr. von Hauner Children's Hospital, LMU Munich, 80337, Munich, Germany
| | - Ulrich von Both
- Infectiology Service, Dr. von Hauner Children's Hospital, LMU Munich, 80337, Munich, Germany
| | - Melanie Meyer-Buehn
- Infectiology Service, Dr. von Hauner Children's Hospital, LMU Munich, 80337, Munich, Germany
| | - Amanda Fáris Marques
- Teaching Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Healthcare-Associated Infections, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, RJ, 24033-900, Brazil
| | - Beatriz Farkas
- Teaching Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Healthcare-Associated Infections, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, RJ, 24033-900, Brazil
| | - Bernardo Silva de Abreu
- Teaching Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Healthcare-Associated Infections, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, RJ, 24033-900, Brazil
| | - Clara Biscaia di Biase
- Teaching Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Healthcare-Associated Infections, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, RJ, 24033-900, Brazil
| | - Jully Miyoshi Takahashi
- Teaching Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Healthcare-Associated Infections, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, RJ, 24033-900, Brazil
| | - Luisa Dutra de Castro
- Teaching Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Healthcare-Associated Infections, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, RJ, 24033-900, Brazil
| | - Izabel Alves Leal
- Teaching Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Healthcare-Associated Infections, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, RJ, 24033-900, Brazil
| | - Cristiane Henriques Teixeira
- Teaching Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Healthcare-Associated Infections, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, RJ, 24033-900, Brazil
| | | | - Florian Hoffmann
- Intensive Care Medicine service, Dr. von Hauner Children's Hospital, LMU Munich, 80337, Munich, Germany
| | - Johannes Hübner
- Infectiology Service, Dr. von Hauner Children's Hospital, LMU Munich, 80337, Munich, Germany
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Wagstaff JS, Durrant RJ, Newman MG, Eason R, Ward RM, Sherwin CMT, Enioutina EY. Antibiotic Treatment of Suspected and Confirmed Neonatal Sepsis Within 28 Days of Birth: A Retrospective Analysis. Front Pharmacol 2019; 10:1191. [PMID: 31680968 PMCID: PMC6803465 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2019.01191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2019] [Accepted: 09/17/2019] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Neonatal sepsis causes significant mortality and morbidity worldwide. Diagnosis is usually confirmed via blood culture results. Blood culture sepsis confirmation can take days and suffer from contamination and false negatives. Empiric therapy with antibiotics is common. This study aims to retrospectively describe and compare treatments of blood culture-confirmed and unconfirmed, but suspected, sepsis within the University of Utah Hospital system. Electronic health records were obtained from 1,248 neonates from January 1, 2006, to December 31, 2017. Sepsis was categorized into early-onset (≤3 days of birth, EOS) and late-onset (>3 and ≤28 days of birth, LOS) and categorized as culture-confirmed sepsis if a pathogen was cultured from the blood and unconfirmed if all blood cultures were negative with no potentially contaminated blood cultures. Of 1,010 neonates in the EOS cohort, 23 (2.3%) were culture-confirmed, most with Escherichia coli (42%). Treatment for unconfirmed EOS lasted an average of 6.1 days with primarily gentamicin and ampicillin while confirmed patients were treated for an average of 12.3 days with increased administration of cefotaxime. Of 311 neonates in the LOS cohort, 62 (20%) were culture-confirmed, most culturing coagulase negative staphylococci (46%). Treatment courses for unconfirmed LOS lasted an average of 7.8 days while confirmed patients were treated for an average of 11.4 days, these patients were primarily treated with vancomycin and gentamicin. The use of cefotaxime for unconfirmed EOS and LOS increased throughout the study period. Cefotaxime administration was associated with an increase in neonatal mortality, even when potential confounding factors were added to the logistic regression model (adjusted odds ratio 2.8, 95%CI [1.21, 6.88], p = 0.02). These results may not be generalized to all hospitals and the use of cefotaxime may be a surrogate for other factors. Given the low rate of blood culture positive diagnosis and the high exposure rate of empiric antibiotics, this patient population might benefit from improved diagnostics with reevaluation of antibiotic use guidelines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jadon S Wagstaff
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT, United States
| | - Robert J Durrant
- Division of Medical Laboratory Science, Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, United States
| | - Michael G Newman
- University of Utah Health Science Center, Salt Lake City, UT, United States
| | - Rachael Eason
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT, United States.,Division of Medical Laboratory Science, Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, United States
| | - Robert M Ward
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT, United States
| | - Catherine M T Sherwin
- Department of Pediatrics, Wright State University, Boonshoft School of Medicine, Dayton Children's Hospital, Dayton, OH, United States
| | - Elena Y Enioutina
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT, United States.,Division of Medical Laboratory Science, Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, United States.,Pharmaceutics & Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, United States
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119
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Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation and bloodstream infection in congenital diaphragmatic hernia. J Perinatol 2019; 39:1384-1391. [PMID: 31383944 DOI: 10.1038/s41372-019-0435-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2019] [Revised: 05/22/2019] [Accepted: 06/03/2019] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To characterize the risk of bloodstream (BSI) and urinary tract infection (UTI) and describe antibiotic use in infants with congenital diaphragmatic hernia (CDH) requiring extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO). STUDY DESIGN The Children's Hospitals Neonatal Database was queried for infants with CDH and ECMO treatment from 2010 to 2016. The outcomes included BSI, UTI, and antimicrobial medication. Member institutions completed a survey on infection practices. RESULT Eighteen of the 338 patients identified (5.3%) had ≥1 BSI during their ECMO course. The likelihood of BSI increased with time: 1.2/1000 ECMO days; 0.6% (2/315) in the first week and rising to 14.6/1000; 8.6% (5/58) after 21 days (p = 0.002). More than 95% of patients received antibiotics each week on ECMO. CONCLUSIONS Confirmed BSI is rare in infants with CDH treated with ECMO in the first week, but increases with the duration of ECMO. Use of antibiotics was extensive and did not correspond to infection frequency.
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120
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Grammatico-Guillon L, Abdurrahim L, Shea K, Astagneau P, Pelton S. Scope of Antibiotic Stewardship Programs in Pediatrics. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 2019; 58:1291-1301. [PMID: 31179745 DOI: 10.1177/0009922819852985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
This review of pediatric antibiotic stewardship programs (ASPs) summarized the antibiotic prescribing interventions and their impact on antibiotic use and antimicrobial resistance. We reviewed studies of pediatric ASP, including the search terms "antimicrobial stewardship," "antibiotic stewardship," "children," and "pediatric." The articles' selection and review were performed independently by 2 investigators, according to the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines. Twenty-one studies were included, from the past 15 years, increasing after the 2007 IDSA (Infectious Diseases Society of America) guidelines for ASP with a large variability of the programs, and the virtual exclusive focus on inpatient settings (90%): 16 formalized ASP and 5 non-ASP actions. A reduction in antibiotic prescribing in ASP has been demonstrated in the studies reporting pediatric ASP, but only one ASP showed a significant impact on antimicrobial resistance. However, the impact on antibiotic consumption in pediatrics demonstrated the important contribution of these strategies to improve antibiotic use in children, without complications or negative issues.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Pascal Astagneau
- APHP University Hospital, Paris, France.,Sorbonne University, Paris France
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Gouyon B, Martin-Mons S, Iacobelli S, Razafimahefa H, Kermorvant-Duchemin E, Brat R, Caeymaex L, Couringa Y, Alexandre C, Lafon C, Ramful D, Bonsante F, Binson G, Flamein F, Moussy-Durandy A, Di Maio M, Mazeiras G, Girard O, Desbruyeres C, Mourdie J, Escourrou G, Flechelles O, Abasse S, Rosenthal JM, Pages AS, Dorsi M, Karaoui L, ElGellab A, Le Bail Dantec F, Yangui MA, Norbert K, Kugbe Y, Lorrain S, Pignolet A, Garnier EM, Lapillonne A, Mitanchez D, Jacqz-Aigrain E, Gouyon JB. Characteristics of prescription in 29 Level 3 Neonatal Wards over a 2-year period (2017-2018). An inventory for future research. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0222667. [PMID: 31536560 PMCID: PMC6752821 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0222667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2019] [Accepted: 09/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives The primary objective of this study is to determine the current level of patient medication exposure in Level 3 Neonatal Wards (L3NW). The secondary objective is to evaluate in the first month of life the rate of medication prescription not cited in the Summary of Product Characteristics (SmPC). A database containing all the medication prescriptions is collected as part of a prescription benchmarking program in the L3NW. Material and methods The research is a two-year observational cohort study (2017–2018) with retrospective analysis of medications prescribed in 29 French L3NW. Seventeen L3NW are present since the beginning of the study and 12 have been progressively included. All neonatal units used the same computerized system of prescription, and all prescription data were completely de-identified within each hospital before being stored in a common data warehouse. Results The study population includes 27,382 newborns. Two hundred and sixty-one different medications (International Nonproprietary Names, INN) were prescribed. Twelve INN (including paracetamol) were prescribed for at least 10% of patients, 55 for less than 10% but at least 1% and 194 to less than 1%. The lowest gestational ages (GA) were exposed to the greatest number of medications (18.0 below 28 weeks of gestation (WG) to 4.1 above 36 WG) (p<0.0001). In addition, 69.2% of the 351 different combinations of an medication INN and a route of administration have no indication for the first month of life according to the French SmPC. Ninety-five percent of premature infants with GA less than 32 weeks received at least one medication not cited in SmPC. Conclusion Neonates remain therapeutic orphans. The consequences of polypharmacy in L3NW should be quickly assessed, especially in the most immature infants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Béatrice Gouyon
- Centre d’Etudes Périnatales de l’Océan Indien (EA 7388), Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de La Réunion – Site Sud, Saint Pierre, Réunion, France
| | - Séverine Martin-Mons
- Centre d’Etudes Périnatales de l’Océan Indien (EA 7388), Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de La Réunion – Site Sud, Saint Pierre, Réunion, France
| | - Silvia Iacobelli
- Centre d’Etudes Périnatales de l’Océan Indien (EA 7388), Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de La Réunion – Site Sud, Saint Pierre, Réunion, France
| | | | | | - Roselyne Brat
- Centre Hospitalier Régional d’Orléans, Orléans, France
| | | | - Yvan Couringa
- Centre Hospitalier Andrée-Rosemon, Guyane Française, France
| | | | | | - Duksha Ramful
- Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de La Réunion – Site Nord, Saint Denis, Réunion, France
| | - Francesco Bonsante
- Centre d’Etudes Périnatales de l’Océan Indien (EA 7388), Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de La Réunion – Site Sud, Saint Pierre, Réunion, France
| | | | | | | | | | - Gaël Mazeiras
- Centre Hospitalier de la Côte Basque, Bayonne, France
| | | | | | - Julien Mourdie
- Hôpital Jacques Monod – Groupe Hospitalier du Havre, Montivilliers, France
| | | | - Olivier Flechelles
- Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Fort-de-France, Fort de France, Martinique, France
| | | | | | - Anne-Sophie Pages
- Centre Hospitalier Public du Cotentin, Cherbourg-en-Cotentin, France
| | - Marine Dorsi
- Centre Hospitalier Territorial Gaston-Bourret, Dumbéa, Nouvelle Calédonie, France
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Yaovi Kugbe
- Centre Hospitalier de l’Ouest Guyanais – Franck Joly, Saint Laurent du Maroni, Guyane Française, France
| | - Simon Lorrain
- Centre d’Etudes Périnatales de l’Océan Indien (EA 7388), Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de La Réunion – Site Sud, Saint Pierre, Réunion, France
| | - Anaelle Pignolet
- Centre d’Etudes Périnatales de l’Océan Indien (EA 7388), Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de La Réunion – Site Sud, Saint Pierre, Réunion, France
| | - Elodie Marie Garnier
- Centre d’Etudes Périnatales de l’Océan Indien (EA 7388), Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de La Réunion – Site Sud, Saint Pierre, Réunion, France
| | | | | | | | - Jean-Bernard Gouyon
- Centre d’Etudes Périnatales de l’Océan Indien (EA 7388), Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de La Réunion – Site Sud, Saint Pierre, Réunion, France
- * E-mail:
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Abstract
With the improvement in neonatal care in last two decades, the survival of very low birth weight (VLBW), extremely low birth weight (ELBW), fetus diagnosed with malformations, and congenital heart disease and severe birth asphyxia has increased significantly. These infants when admitted to the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) need numerous interventions depending upon the severity of sickness and postnatal course like need of mechanical ventilation (MV) or noninvasive ventilation, surfactant administration, placement of central lines, total parenteral nutrition, and numerous medications. The duration of NICU and hospital stay of these high-risk infants varies from few days to few weeks to few months. Long stay in the hospital leads to high hospital bills and increase the cost of neonatal care substantially. The cost of NICU stay varies from 90 USD to 1250-2500 USD per day as per various studies, depending upon the level of care and sickness of the admitted infants. In developed countries, the burden of NICU cost is often taken care by the government or insurance companies but in many developing countries the parents bear the substantial cost of NICU admission of their infants. There are many interventions which when implemented in the NICU will lead to reduction of the cost and will make the NICU cost effective. In this review, we cover various interventions mostly from our own published work which have shown to reduce the NICU cost and make it more cost effective with equivalent and better neonatal outcomes, especially in developing countries like ours.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deepak Sharma
- Department of Neonatology, National Institute of Medical Sciences, Jaipur, India
| | - Srinivas Murki
- Department of Neonatology, Paramitha Children Hospital, Kothapet, Hyderabad, India
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Advanced neonatal medicine in China: Is newborn ward capacity associated with inpatient antibiotic usage? PLoS One 2019; 14:e0219630. [PMID: 31408462 PMCID: PMC6692017 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0219630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2019] [Accepted: 06/27/2019] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Previous surveys of neonatal medicine in China have not collected comprehensive information on antibiotic use in newborns. The goal of the present study was to assess the trends in antibiotic use in inpatient newborns from advanced hospitals in mainland China and to evaluate the contributing factors. We extracted retrospective data on newborn clinical units from a database containing key clinical subspecialty area indicators from provincial or ministerial (Class A level III) hospitals over three consecutive years (2008–2010) and in 25 of 31 provincial districts of mainland China. Fifty-five newborn units were included in the study. The results showed that two thirds (65.7% ± 23.1%) of inpatient newborns were prescribed antibiotic products. Antibiotic use rates were significantly different by newborn ward bed capacity (p = 0.023; 60.6% for d capacity (ficant65.7% ± 23–100 beds group, and 77.1% for (ficant65.7% ± 23.1%) of inpatient newb significantly different by type of hospital, geographic area, admission to physician or nurse ratio, or physician or nurse academic degree. Factors contributing significantly to antibiotic use included ward bed capacity, physician to nurse ratio, average hospital stay, and pneumonia to preterm infant ratio. Our data suggested that the use of antibiotics among inpatient newborns in advanced hospitals in mainland China was prevalent and should be subject to rigorous monitoring, and highlighted the need to explore how newborn ward bed capacity potentially impacts antibiotic use.
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124
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The impact of paediatric antimicrobial stewardship programmes on patient outcomes. Curr Opin Infect Dis 2019; 31:216-223. [PMID: 29570494 DOI: 10.1097/qco.0000000000000449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Although there has been an unprecedented global effort to reduce the spread of antimicrobial resistance, little emphasis has been placed on children. This review aims to evaluate the impact of paediatric antimicrobial stewardship programmes as well as providing a practical approach for effectively implementing them in community-based settings and in hospitals. RECENT FINDINGS Although rates of serious bacterial infection are low in children, the rates of antimicrobial use and resistance are comparable with adults. Different strategies are required to implement antimicrobial stewardship in community-based settings compared to in hospitals. Nationally coordinated, whole-system approaches have achieved long-term, sustainable reductions in antimicrobial prescribing, as well as reductions in resistance rates at population level, with no evidence of an increase in rate of serious infection or bacterial complications. SUMMARY Antimicrobial stewardship programmes in neonates and children have unique characteristics and issues. There is currently no consensus on how to measure consumption of antimicrobials in neonates and children. This is a research priority. Benchmarking and clinical networks in neonates and paediatrics are important to share practice and drive best use of antimicrobials.
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125
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Balkhy HH, El-Saed A, AlShehri A, Alshaalan M, Hijazi O, El-Metwally A, Aljohany SM, Al Saif S. Antimicrobial consumption in three pediatric and neonatal intensive care units in Saudi Arabia: 33-month surveillance study. Ann Clin Microbiol Antimicrob 2019; 18:20. [PMID: 31269955 PMCID: PMC6607581 DOI: 10.1186/s12941-019-0320-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2018] [Accepted: 06/21/2019] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Despite their critical role in antimicrobial stewardship programs, data on antimicrobial consumption among the pediatric and neonatal population is limited internationally and lacking in Saudi Arabia. The current study was done as part of our antimicrobial stewardship activities. Objectives To calculate overall and type-specific antimicrobial consumption. Methods A prospective surveillance study was conducted at King Abdulaziz Medical City, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, between October 2012 and June 2015 in two pediatric and one neonatal intensive care units (ICUs). Consumption data were collected manually on a daily basis by infection control practitioners. Data were presented as days of therapy (DOT) per 1000 patient-days and as frequency of daily consumption. Results During the 33 months of the study, a total of 30,110 DOTs were monitored during 4921 admissions contributing 62,606 patient-days. Cephalosporins represented 38.0% of monitored antimicrobials in pediatric ICUs followed by vancomycin (21.9%), carbapenems (14.0%), aminoglycosides (8.8%), and piperacillin/tazobactam (8.8%). Their consumption rates were 265.1, 152.6, 97.6, 61.4, and 61.4 DOTs per 1000 patient-days (respectively). Aminoglycosides represented 45.4% of monitored antimicrobials in neonatal ICU followed by cephalosporins (30.4%) vancomycin (13.6%), and carbapenems (8.3%). Their consumption rates were 147.5, 98.7, 44.3, and 27 DOTs per 1000 patient-days (respectively). Conclusion Cephalosporins are frequently used in pediatric ICU while aminoglycosides are frequently used in neonatal ICU. The local consumption of cephalosporins and carbapenems in both ICUs is probably higher than international levels. Such data can help in establishing and monitoring the functions of antimicrobial stewardship activities aiming to ensure judicious consumption of antimicrobials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanan H Balkhy
- King Saud Bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. .,King Abdullah International Medical Research Center, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. .,Infection Prevention and Control Department, King Abdulaziz Medical City (KAMC), Ministry of National Guard Health Affairs (MNGHA), P.O. Box 22490, Riyadh, 11426, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Aiman El-Saed
- King Saud Bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.,Infection Prevention and Control Department, King Abdulaziz Medical City (KAMC), Ministry of National Guard Health Affairs (MNGHA), P.O. Box 22490, Riyadh, 11426, Saudi Arabia.,Community Medicine Department, Faculty of Medicine, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt
| | - Ali AlShehri
- Pediatric Intensive Care, King Abdullah Specialized Children's Hospital, MNGHA, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohammad Alshaalan
- Department of Pediatrics, Infectious Disease Division, KAMC, MNGHA, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Omar Hijazi
- Pediatric Cardiothoracic Intensive Care Unit, KAMC, MNGHA, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ashraf El-Metwally
- King Saud Bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Sameera M Aljohany
- Pathology and Laboratory Medicine Department, KAMC, MNGHA, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Saif Al Saif
- Neonatal Intensive Care, King Abdullah Specialized Children's Hospital, MNGHA, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
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Procalcitonin versus C-reactive protein: review of kinetics and performance for diagnosis of neonatal sepsis. J Perinatol 2019; 39:893-903. [PMID: 30926891 DOI: 10.1038/s41372-019-0363-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2018] [Revised: 03/03/2019] [Accepted: 03/08/2019] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Procalcitonin (PCT) and C-reactive protein (CRP) are commonly used biomarkers, but their diagnostic advantage for neonatal early-onset (EOS) or late-onset (LOS) sepsis is controversial. In a comprehensive literature review we found significant heterogeneity between studies in sample timing, cut-off values, consideration of blood culture results for sepsis classification, and definition of EOS versus LOS. We identified 39 studies directly comparing PCT with CRP, but only four in very low birth weight (VLBW) neonates. The mean sensitivity for EOS, LOS, and EOS + LOS was 73.6%, 88.9%, and 76.5% for PCT, compared to 65.6%, 77.4%, and 66.4% for CRP, respectively. Mean specificity of PCT and CRP was 82.8% versus 82.7% for EOS, 75.6% versus 81.7% for LOS, and 80.4% versus 91.3% for EOS + LOS. More studies directly comparing both biomarkers for EOS and LOS, especially in extremely and very-low-birth-weight infants, are needed to determine their clinical value for guidance of antibiotic therapy in neonatal sepsis.
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Kitano T, Takagi K, Arai I, Yasuhara H, Ebisu R, Ohgitani A, Minowa H. Elevated C-reactive protein in umbilical cord blood: Neonatal case review. Pediatr Int 2019; 61:583-586. [PMID: 30993850 DOI: 10.1111/ped.13866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2018] [Revised: 03/06/2019] [Accepted: 04/08/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND C-reactive protein (CRP) has limited placental transportability. Relying on CRP level in umbilical cord blood alone is an inaccurate way to predict early onset neonatal sepsis, and we retrospectively reviewed the clinical courses of neonates with elevated CRP in umbilical cord blood. METHODS This study was a retrospective case review of neonates with elevated CRP in umbilical cord blood (>0.5 mg/dL) in the Nara Prefecture General Medical Center, Nara, Japan between February 2013 and August 2017. We investigated the association of maternal and neonatal factors with neonatal clinical course. Then, we compared the cases of neonates with and without elevated CRP in umbilical cord blood. RESULTS The subjects consisted of a total of 22 neonates with elevated CRP in umbilical cord blood and 344 neonates without elevated CRP in umbilical cord blood. Of the 22 neonates with elevated CRP, 18 had some symptoms of sepsis at birth, but the symptoms of 85% of the symptomatic patients resolved ≤24 h after birth. Two neonates with elevated CRP in umbilical cord blood had bacteremia, and they had poor prognoses. Elevated CRP in umbilical cord blood was associated with length of antimicrobials (P = 0.021), immature/total neutrophil ratio (P = 0.017), and pathological chorioamnionitis (CAM; P = 0.028) on multivariable logistic regression analysis. CONCLUSION Elevated CRP in umbilical cord blood was associated with pathological CAM. Most symptoms of sepsis resolved <24 h after birth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taito Kitano
- Department of Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, Nara Prefecture General Medical Center, Nara, Japan.,Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Kumiko Takagi
- Department of Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, Nara Prefecture General Medical Center, Nara, Japan
| | - Ikuyo Arai
- Department of Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, Nara Prefecture General Medical Center, Nara, Japan
| | - Hajime Yasuhara
- Department of Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, Nara Prefecture General Medical Center, Nara, Japan
| | - Reiko Ebisu
- Department of Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, Nara Prefecture General Medical Center, Nara, Japan
| | - Ayako Ohgitani
- Department of Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, Nara Prefecture General Medical Center, Nara, Japan
| | - Hideki Minowa
- Department of Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, Nara Prefecture General Medical Center, Nara, Japan
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Kitano T, Takagi K, Arai I, Yasuhara H, Ebisu R, Ohgitani A, Kitagawa D, Oka M, Masuo K, Minowa H. A simple and feasible antimicrobial stewardship program in a neonatal intensive care unit of a Japanese community hospital. J Infect Chemother 2019; 25:860-865. [PMID: 31109751 DOI: 10.1016/j.jiac.2019.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2018] [Revised: 03/30/2019] [Accepted: 04/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although tertiary hospitals have successfully introduced ASPs by antimicrobial stewardship teams, lots of community hospitals without pediatric infectious disease specialists have difficulty implementing ASP. We present a successful implementation of simple and feasible NICU antimicrobial stewardship program in a Japanese community hospital. METHOD We developed a protocol of antimicrobial treatment in our NICU department and have implemented the protocol from September 2017. The protocol consists of start and stop of criteria antimicrobial treatment, weekend report of blood culture result from microbiology department and stopping ordering antimicrobials beforehand for the next day. We compared days of therapy (DOT) during the post-implementation period (September 2017 to August 2018) with that of pre-implementation period (March 2013 to August 2017). RESULT In pre- and post-ASP implementation periods, 913 and 194 patients were analyzed. DOT was 175.1 and 41.6/1000 patient-days, respectively (p < 0.001) with 76.2% reduction. The percentage of neonates who had any antimicrobials and the percentage of prolonged antimicrobial treatments among neonates who had any antimicrobials decreased significantly (55.3% vs 20.6%, p < 0.001 and 65.0% vs 32.5%, p < 0.001). The protocol compliance rates were also significantly different (55.4% vs 95.4%; p < 0.001). The methicillin-resistant rate of S.aureus rates were significantly reduced in post-ASP period (31.1% vs 12.9%; p = 0.002). CONCLUSION This ASP program was easily implemented in a NICU department of a community hospital and significantly reduced antimicrobial prescription. This kind of simple protocol may be successfully scaled-up in resource limited community hospitals without no pediatric infectious disease specialists or antimicrobial stewardship team.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taito Kitano
- Department of Pediatrics, Nara Medical University Hospital, 840 Shijo, Kashihara, Nara, 6348521, Japan; Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, 615 N. Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA.
| | - Kumiko Takagi
- Department of Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, Nara Prefecture General Medical Center, 2-897-5 Shichijo West, Nara, Nara, 6308581, Japan
| | - Ikuyo Arai
- Department of Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, Nara Prefecture General Medical Center, 2-897-5 Shichijo West, Nara, Nara, 6308581, Japan
| | - Hajime Yasuhara
- Department of Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, Nara Prefecture General Medical Center, 2-897-5 Shichijo West, Nara, Nara, 6308581, Japan
| | - Reiko Ebisu
- Department of Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, Nara Prefecture General Medical Center, 2-897-5 Shichijo West, Nara, Nara, 6308581, Japan
| | - Ayako Ohgitani
- Department of Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, Nara Prefecture General Medical Center, 2-897-5 Shichijo West, Nara, Nara, 6308581, Japan
| | - Daisuke Kitagawa
- Department of Microbiology, Nara Prefecture General Medical Center, 2-897-5 Shichijo West, Nara, Nara, 6308581, Japan
| | - Miyako Oka
- Department of Microbiology, Nara Prefecture General Medical Center, 2-897-5 Shichijo West, Nara, Nara, 6308581, Japan
| | - Kazue Masuo
- Department of Microbiology, Nara Prefecture General Medical Center, 2-897-5 Shichijo West, Nara, Nara, 6308581, Japan
| | - Hideki Minowa
- Department of Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, Nara Prefecture General Medical Center, 2-897-5 Shichijo West, Nara, Nara, 6308581, Japan
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Mukhopadhyay S, Sengupta S, Puopolo KM. Challenges and opportunities for antibiotic stewardship among preterm infants. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2019; 104:F327-F332. [PMID: 30425110 PMCID: PMC6491257 DOI: 10.1136/archdischild-2018-315412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2018] [Revised: 10/13/2018] [Accepted: 10/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Antibiotic stewardship programmes aim to optimise antimicrobial use to prevent the emergence of resistance species and protect patients from the side effects of unnecessary medication. The high incidence of systemic infection and associated mortality from these infections leads neonatal providers to frequently initiate antibiotic therapy and make empiric antibiotic courses one of the main contributors of antibiotic use in the neonatal units. Yet, premature infants are also at risk for acute life-threatening complications associated with antibiotic use such as necrotising enterocolitis and for long-term morbidities such as asthma. In this review, we discuss specific aspects of antibiotic use in the very low birthweight preterm infants, with a focus on empiric use, that provide opportunities for stewardship practice. We discuss strategies to risk-stratify antibiotic initiation for the risk of early-onset sepsis, optimise empiric therapy duration and antibiotic choice in late-onset sepsis, and standardise decisions for stopping empiric therapy. Lastly, review the evolving role of biomarkers in antibiotic stewardship.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sagori Mukhopadhyay
- Division of Neonatology, Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia,University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Shaon Sengupta
- Division of Neonatology, Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia,University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Karen M. Puopolo
- Division of Neonatology, Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia,University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
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Fjalstad JW, Esaiassen E, Juvet LK, van den Anker JN, Klingenberg C. Antibiotic therapy in neonates and impact on gut microbiota and antibiotic resistance development: a systematic review. J Antimicrob Chemother 2019; 73:569-580. [PMID: 29182785 DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkx426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2017] [Accepted: 10/17/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives To systematically review the impact of antibiotic therapy in the neonatal period on changes in the gut microbiota and/or antibiotic resistance development. Methods Data sources were PubMed, Embase, Medline and the Cochrane Database, supplemented by manual searches of reference lists. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and observational studies were included if they provided data on different categories of antibiotic treatment (yes versus no, long versus short duration and/or broad- versus narrow-spectrum regimens) and subsequent changes in the gut microbiota and/or antibiotic resistance development. We evaluated risk of bias using the Cochrane Handbook, adapted to include observational studies. When appropriate, we used the vote-counting method to perform semi-quantitative meta-analyses. We applied the Grades of Recommendation, Assessment, Development and Evaluation approach to rate the quality of evidence (QoE). Study protocol registration: PROSPERO CRD42015026743. Results We included 48 studies, comprising 3 RCTs and 45 observational studies. Prolonged antibiotic treatment was associated with reduced gut microbial diversity in all three studies investigating this outcome (very low QoE). Antibiotic treatment was associated with reduced colonization rates of protective commensal anaerobic bacteria in four of five studies (very low QoE). However, all three categories of antibiotic treatment were associated with an increased risk of antibiotic resistance development, in particular MDR in Gram-negative bacteria, and we graded the QoE for these outcomes as moderate. Conclusions We are moderately confident that antibiotic treatment leads to antibiotic resistance development in neonates and it may also induce potentially disease-promoting gut microbiota alterations. Our findings emphasize the need to reduce unnecessary antibiotic treatment in neonates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jon Widding Fjalstad
- Department of Paediatrics, University Hospital of North Norway, Tromsø, Norway.,Paediatric Research Group, Faculty of Health Sciences, UiT, The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Eirin Esaiassen
- Department of Paediatrics, University Hospital of North Norway, Tromsø, Norway.,Paediatric Research Group, Faculty of Health Sciences, UiT, The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Lene Kristine Juvet
- Norwegian Institute of Public Health, PO Box 4404, Nydalen, N-0403 Oslo, Norway.,University College of Southeast Norway, Notodden, Norway
| | - John N van den Anker
- Division of Paediatric Pharmacology and Pharmacometrics, University of Basel Children's Hospital, Basel, Switzerland.,Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Children's National Health System, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Claus Klingenberg
- Department of Paediatrics, University Hospital of North Norway, Tromsø, Norway.,Paediatric Research Group, Faculty of Health Sciences, UiT, The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
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Thampi N, Shah PS, Nelson S, Agarwal A, Steinberg M, Diambomba Y, Morris AM. Prospective audit and feedback on antibiotic use in neonatal intensive care: a retrospective cohort study. BMC Pediatr 2019; 19:105. [PMID: 30975119 PMCID: PMC6458619 DOI: 10.1186/s12887-019-1481-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2018] [Accepted: 03/31/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Antimicrobial stewardship programs potentially lead to appropriate antibiotic use, yet the optimal approach for neonates is uncertain. Such a program was implemented in a tertiary care neonatal intensive care unit in October 2012. We evaluated the impact of this program on antimicrobial use and its association with clinical outcomes. METHODS In a retrospective cohort study, we examined 1580 neonates who received antimicrobials in the 13-months before and 13-months during program implementation. Prospective audit and feedback was given 5 days a week on each patient who was receiving antibiotic. Pharmacy and microbiology data were linked to clinical data from the local Canadian Neonatal Network database. The primary outcome was days of antibiotic therapy per 1000 patient-days; secondary outcomes included mortality, necrotizing enterocolitis, and antibiotic duration for culture-positive and culture-negative late-onset sepsis. The breadth of antibiotic exposure was compared using the Antibiotic Spectrum Index. RESULTS Overall antibiotic use decreased to 339 days of therapy per 1000 patient-days from 395 (14%, P < 0.001), without an increase in mortality. There was no difference in duration of therapy in culture-negative or culture-positive sepsis, rates of necrotizing enterocolitis, or breadth of antibiotic exposure. Fewer antibiotic starts occurred during program implementation (63% versus 59%, P < 0.001). The use of narrow-spectrum agents decreased (P < 0.001) whereas the use of cefotaxime increased (P = 0.016) during program implementation. CONCLUSIONS Daily prospective audit and feedback was not associated with a change in antibiotic duration or clinical outcomes, however there were fewer babies started on antibiotics, suggesting that additional interventions are required to inform and sustain changes in antibiotic prescribing practices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nisha Thampi
- Department of Pediatrics, CHEO, 401 Smyth Road, Ottawa, ON K1H 8L1 Canada
| | - Prakesh S. Shah
- Department of Pediatrics, Sinai Health System, 600 University Avenue, Toronto, ON M5G 1X5 Canada
| | - Sandra Nelson
- Antimicrobial Stewardship Program, Sinai Health System-University Health Network, 600 University Avenue, Toronto, ON M5G 1X5 Canada
| | - Amisha Agarwal
- Research Institute, CHEO, 401 Smyth Road, Ottawa, ON K1H 8L1 Canada
| | - Marilyn Steinberg
- Antimicrobial Stewardship Program, Sinai Health System-University Health Network, 600 University Avenue, Toronto, ON M5G 1X5 Canada
| | - Yenge Diambomba
- Department of Pediatrics, Sinai Health System, 600 University Avenue, Toronto, ON M5G 1X5 Canada
| | - Andrew M. Morris
- Antimicrobial Stewardship Program, Sinai Health System-University Health Network, 600 University Avenue, Toronto, ON M5G 1X5 Canada
- Department of Medicine, Sinai Health System, University Health Network, 600 University Avenue, Toronto, ON M5G 1X5 Canada
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Ting JY, Roberts A, Sherlock R, Ojah C, Cieslak Z, Dunn M, Barrington K, Yoon EW, Shah PS. Duration of Initial Empirical Antibiotic Therapy and Outcomes in Very Low Birth Weight Infants. Pediatrics 2019; 143:peds.2018-2286. [PMID: 30819968 DOI: 10.1542/peds.2018-2286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED : media-1vid110.1542/5984244681001PEDS-VA_2018-2286Video Abstract BACKGROUND: Overuse of antibiotics can facilitate antibiotic resistance and is associated with adverse neonatal outcomes. We studied the association between duration of antibiotic therapy and short-term outcomes of very low birth weight (VLBW) (<1500 g) infants without culture-proven sepsis. METHODS We included VLBW infants admitted to NICUs in the Canadian Neonatal Network between 2010-2016 who were exposed to antibiotics but did not have culture-proven sepsis in the first week. Antibiotic exposure was calculated as the number of days an infant received antibiotics in the first week of life. Composite primary outcome was defined as mortality or any major morbidity (severe neurologic injury, retinopathy of prematurity, necrotizing enterocolitis, chronic lung disease, or hospital-acquired infection). RESULTS Of the 14 207 included infants, 21% (n = 2950), 38% (n = 5401), and 41% (n = 5856) received 0, 1 to 3, and 4 to 7 days of antibiotics, respectively. Antibiotic exposure for 4 to 7 days was associated with higher odds of the composite outcome (adjusted odds ratio 1.24; 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.09-1.41). Each additional day of antibiotic use was associated with 4.7% (95% CI 2.6%-6.8%) increased odds of composite outcome and 7.3% (95% CI 3.3%-11.4%) increased odds in VLBW infants at low risk of early-onset sepsis (born via cesarean delivery, without labor and without chorioamnionitis). CONCLUSIONS Prolonged empirical antibiotic exposure within the first week after birth in VLBW infants is associated with increased odds of the composite outcome. This practice is a potential target for antimicrobial stewardship.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph Y Ting
- Department of Pediatrics, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.,Neonatal Program, British Columbia Women's Hospital and Health Centre
| | - Ashley Roberts
- Department of Pediatrics, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Rebecca Sherlock
- Department of Pediatrics, Surrey Memorial Hospital, Surrey, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Cecil Ojah
- Department of Pediatrics, Saint John Regional Hospital, Saint John, New Brunswick, Canada
| | - Zenon Cieslak
- Department of Pediatrics, Royal Columbian Hospital, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Michael Dunn
- Department of Newborn and Developmental Paediatrics, Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Keith Barrington
- The Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Sainte-Justine, Montréal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Eugene W Yoon
- Maternal-Infant Care Research Centre, Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; and
| | - Prakesh S Shah
- Maternal-Infant Care Research Centre, Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; and.,Department of Pediatrics, Sinai Health System and University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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Cantey JB, Hersh AL. Antibiotic Stewardship in the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit: Lessons From Oxygen. Pediatrics 2019; 143:peds.2018-3902. [PMID: 30819970 DOI: 10.1542/peds.2018-3902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Joseph B Cantey
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas; and
| | - Adam L Hersh
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah
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Abstract
BACKGROUND Neonatal sepsis is a leading cause of child morbidity and mortality, especially in premature and low birth weight infants. Prompt antibiotic therapy is warranted, but its inappropriate use leads to bacterial resistance and adverse outcomes. Our objective is to describe the antibiotic use for late-onset sepsis in Peruvian premature infants. METHODS This study is a prospective study as a secondary analysis of a clinical trial in 3 neonatal care units in Peru. We included infants in the first 72 hours of life, with birth weight (BW) <2000 g. We described the antibiotic use as length of therapy (LOT) per 1000 patient days (PD) and antibiotic courses. RESULTS We included 408 neonates, with 12,204 PD of follow-up; 253 infants (62%) had a BW ≤1500 g. Total antibiotic use for late-onset sepsis was 2395 LOT (196 LOT/1000 PD). Two-hundred and seventy-one patients (66.4%) did not receive antibiotics for late-onset sepsis during their hospitalization. In total, 204 antibiotic courses were administered; 92 infants (22.5%) received 1 course, and 45 (11.0%) received 2-5 antibiotic courses. Mean duration of antibiotic course was 10.8 days (standard deviation: ±7.3). We found a significant association between a lower BW and increased antibiotic use per day (P < 0.001). The most commonly used antibiotics were vancomycin (143 LOT/1000 PD), carbapenems (115 LOT/1000 PD), aminoglycosides (72 LOT/1000 PD) and ampicillin (41 LOT/1000 PD). CONCLUSIONS Premature infants receive antibiotics for longer than recommended periods of time. Antibiotic overuse is greater in neonates with lower BW. Vancomycin is the most used antibiotic. There is an urgent need to develop antimicrobial stewardship programs in our setting.
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Screening and Serial Neutrophil Counts Do Not Contribute to the Recognition or Diagnosis of Late-Onset Neonatal Sepsis. J Pediatr 2019; 205:105-111.e2. [PMID: 30318373 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpeds.2018.09.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2018] [Revised: 08/15/2018] [Accepted: 09/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine the validity of screening and serial neutrophil counts in predicting the absence/presence of late-onset sepsis (LOS) in infants with central venous catheters. STUDY DESIGN Retrospective study of infants admitted to the neonatal intensive care unit (2009-2013) at Parkland Hospital with a central venous catheter and ≥1 LOS evaluations. Infants were categorized as proven or suspect LOS or uninfected based on results of blood cultures, clinical illness, and duration of antibiotics. Receiver operating curves (ROCs) were constructed to predict the absence or presence of LOS using Manroe reference ranges for total and immature neutrophils and the immature to total neutrophil ratio at 0, 12, and 24 hours after blood culture and the neutrophil value score, which assesses serial values. RESULTS Of the 497 infants with a central venous catheter, 179 underwent ≥1 LOS evaluations, and 140 of 179 (78%) had ≥1 complete evaluations (2 blood cultures and neutrophil values at 0, 12, and 24 hours), resulting in 188 complete LOS evaluations. The gestational age was 28 ± 4 weeks and LOS evaluation occurred at 29 ± 34 days (SD; 4-197 days). Sixty-one (35%) infants had proven LOS, 48 (23%) were suspect, and 71 (38%) were noninfected. ROC comparing proven vs noninfected was ≤0.56 for total neutrophils, immature neutrophils, and immature to total neutrophil ratio at 0, 12, and 24 hours and similar for proven + suspect vs noninfected. ROC for neutrophil value scores and absence of LOS was 0.56. CONCLUSIONS Screening neutrophil values are poor predictors of LOS in neonates with a central venous catheter, as are serial neutrophils and the neutrophil value score. Alternative biomarkers are needed.
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Neonates are at a high risk of infection and may have nonspecific signs of sepsis. Accordingly, they are heavily exposed to antimicrobials. Neonates are also uniquely at risk of both short-term and long-term complications from antibiotic exposure. This review discusses advances in antibiotic stewardship in the neonatal population. RECENT FINDINGS Antimicrobial utilization is highly variable among NICUs in excess of case-mix variation. Rates of early-onset sepsis because of Group B Streptococcus have decreased substantially with the introduction of intrapartum antibiotic prophylaxis. Recent epidemiologic studies have created evidence-based tools to more accurately estimate a newborn's risk of early-onset sepsis. Antibiotic selection and duration for late-onset sepsis and necrotizing enterocolitis are variable among centers, with inadequate evidence to guide practice. Novel diagnostic methods and biomarkers are increasingly used to assist with diagnosing infection, but inadequate specificity in many cases may result in excess antibiotic exposure. Published antimicrobial stewardship experiences in the neonatal inpatient setting have largely been successful and well tolerated. SUMMARY Recent publications have identified many ways to safely reduce antimicrobial exposure and developed strategies to implement antimicrobial stewardship in the neonatal inpatient setting. However, new approaches are needed to further improve antibiotic use and to implement these interventions more universally in NICUs.
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Litz JE, Goedicke-Fritz S, Härtel C, Zemlin M, Simon A. Management of early- and late-onset sepsis: results from a survey in 80 German NICUs. Infection 2019; 47:557-564. [DOI: 10.1007/s15010-018-1263-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2018] [Accepted: 12/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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Implementation of the Smart Use of Antibiotics Program to Reduce Unnecessary Antibiotic Use in a Neonatal ICU. Crit Care Med 2019; 47:e1-e7. [DOI: 10.1097/ccm.0000000000003463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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139
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Kaufman D, Zanelli S, Sánchez PJ. Neonatal Meningitis. Neurology 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-323-54392-7.00011-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022] Open
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140
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Thaulow CM, Berild D, Blix HS, Brigtsen AK, Myklebust TÅ, Eriksen BH. Can We Optimize Antibiotic Use in Norwegian Neonates? A Prospective Comparison Between a University Hospital and a District Hospital. Front Pediatr 2019; 7:440. [PMID: 31709209 PMCID: PMC6821648 DOI: 10.3389/fped.2019.00440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2019] [Accepted: 10/10/2019] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Worldwide, a large proportion of neonates are prescribed antibiotics without having infections leading to increased antimicrobial resistance, disturbance of the evolving microbiota, and increasing the risk of various chronical diseases. Comparing practice between different hospitals/settings is important in order to optimize antibiotic stewardship. Aim: To investigate and compare the potential for improved antibiotic stewardship in neonates in two Norwegian hospitals with different academic culture, with emphasis on antibiotic exposure in unconfirmed infections, treatment length/doses, CRP values and the use of broad-spectrum antibiotics (BSA). All types of infections were investigated, but the main focus was on early-onset sepsis (EOS). Methods: We conducted a prospective observational cohort study of antibiotic use in a Norwegian university hospital (UH) and a district hospital (DH), 2017. Unconfirmed infections were defined as culture negative infections that neither fulfilled the criteria for clinical infection (clinical symptoms, maximum CRP >30 mg/L, and treatment for at least 5 days). Results: Ninety-five neonates at the DH and 89 neonates at the UH treated with systemic antibiotics were included in the study. In total, 685 prescriptions (daily doses) of antibiotics were given at the DH and 903 at the UH. Among term and premature infants (≥ 28 weeks), 82% (75% at the UH and 86% at the DH, p = 0.172) of the treatments for suspected EOS were for unconfirmed infections, and average treatment length in unconfirmed infections was 3.1 days (both hospitals). Median dose for aminoglycoside was higher for term infants at the UH (5.96, 95% CI 5.02-6.89) compared to the DH (4.98, 95% CI 4.82-5.14; p < 0.001). At the UH, all prescriptions with aminoglycosides were gentamicin, while tobramycin accounted for 93% of all prescriptions with aminoglycosides at the DH. Conclusion: There is a potential for reduction in both antibiotic exposure and treatment length in these two neonatal units, and a systematic risk/observational algorithm of sepsis should be considered in both hospitals. We revealed no major differences between the UH and DH, but doses and choice of aminoglycosides varied significantly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Magnus Thaulow
- Clinical Institute II, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway.,Department of Pediatrics, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway
| | - Dag Berild
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.,Institute of Pharmacology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.,Department of Infectious Diseases, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Hege Salvesen Blix
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.,Department of Drug Statistics, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
| | | | - Tor Åge Myklebust
- Department of Research and Innovation, Møre and Romsdal Hospital Trust, Alesund, Norway
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141
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Reduction of Inappropriate Antimicrobial Prescriptions in a Tertiary Neonatal Intensive Care Unit After Antimicrobial Stewardship Care Bundle Implementation. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2019; 38:54-59. [PMID: 30531528 DOI: 10.1097/inf.0000000000002039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Our objective was to evaluate the appropriateness of antibiotic prescriptions in the neonatal intensive care unit using standardized criteria and determine the effects of an antimicrobial stewardship program (ASP) on patterns of antibiotic usage. METHODS A retrospective audit of antibiotic use from July 2010 to June 2013 was conducted, focusing on prescriptions of vancomycin, cefotaxime, meropenem and linezolid for >3 calendar-days. We evaluated the appropriateness of each course of antibiotic treatment based on the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 12-Step Guidelines to Prevent Antimicrobial Resistance (steps 4, 6 and 9). An ASP was introduced in August 2014, and the same audit criteria were applied to review antimicrobial use in the subsequent 12 months. RESULTS In the pre-ASP era, 26.3%, 12.1%, 11.4% and 0% of meropenem, cefotaxime, vancomycin and linezolid courses, respectively, were inappropriate. The most common instance of inappropriate utilization included failure to use narrow-spectrum antimicrobials when appropriate. After the introduction of ASP program, 22.2%, 7.5%, 5.4% and 0% of meropenem, cefotaxime, vancomycin and linezolid courses, respectively, were inappropriate. The numbers of inappropriate antibiotic-days/1000 days of therapy with meropenem, cefotaxime and vancomycin changed from 1.89 to 1.96 [rate ratio (RR), 1.04 (0.70-1.52)], 3.56 to 1.73 [RR, 0.49 (0.33-0.71)] and 2.70 to 1.01 [RR, 0.37 (0.22-0.60)], respectively. In subgroup analysis, very low birth weight infants (birth weight, <1500 g) showed no improvement in the rates of inappropriate antibiotic prescriptions. CONCLUSIONS In this study, we found that ASP initiatives can be applied in neonatal populations to reduce inappropriate antimicrobial prescriptions, though a different approach may be needed among very low birth weight infants.
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142
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Cantey JB, Pyle AK, Wozniak PS, Hynan LS, Sánchez PJ. Early Antibiotic Exposure and Adverse Outcomes in Preterm, Very Low Birth Weight Infants. J Pediatr 2018; 203:62-67. [PMID: 30172430 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpeds.2018.07.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2018] [Revised: 06/28/2018] [Accepted: 07/11/2018] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To determine whether antibiotic use in the first 14 postnatal days in preterm, very low birth weight (birth weight of ≤1500 g) infants is associated with risk after 14 days of age for late-onset sepsis, necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC), or death after controlling for severity of illness using the Clinical Risk Index in Babies II score, and determine whether duration of antibiotic exposure was associated with risk of adverse outcomes. STUDY DESIGN This retrospective cohort study included very low birth weight infants born at ≤326/7 weeks of gestation admitted to the neonatal intensive care unit from September 2010 to June 2014. Infants were excluded if they had major congenital anomalies or culture-proven sepsis, NEC, or death during the first 14 days of life. Antibiotic exposure was recorded as days of therapy and length of therapy in days. RESULTS Of 374 infants, 70 (19%) had late-onset sepsis, NEC, or death after 14 days of age. The median number of antibiotic days of therapy and length of therapy were 5.5 and 3.0, respectively. In multivariate analysis after controlling for severity of illness, each antibiotic day of therapy was associated with a 1.24 times increased risk of sepsis, NEC, or death (OR, 1.24; 95% CI, 1.17-1.31). Risk was similar when length of therapy was used (OR, 1.47; 95% CI, 1.32-1.64). CONCLUSIONS After controlling for severity of illness, each day of antibiotic therapy provided to preterm, very low birth weight infants in the first 2 weeks of age is associated with an increased risk of late-onset sepsis, NEC, or death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph B Cantey
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX; Division of Neonatal-Perinatal Medicine and Pediatric Infectious Diseases, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX; University of Texas Health Science Center San Antonio, San Antonio, TX.
| | - Alaina K Pyle
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX; Division of Neonatal-Perinatal Medicine and Pediatric Infectious Diseases, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX; Division of Neonatology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT
| | - Phillip S Wozniak
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX; Division of Neonatology and Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Center for Perinatal Research, Nationwide Children's Hospital-The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, OH
| | - Linda S Hynan
- Clinical Sciences and Psychiatry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX
| | - Pablo J Sánchez
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX; Division of Neonatal-Perinatal Medicine and Pediatric Infectious Diseases, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX; Division of Neonatology and Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Center for Perinatal Research, Nationwide Children's Hospital-The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, OH
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143
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Schweitzer VA, van Heijl I, van Werkhoven CH, Islam J, Hendriks-Spoor KD, Bielicki J, Bonten MJM, Walker AS, Llewelyn MJ. The quality of studies evaluating antimicrobial stewardship interventions: a systematic review. Clin Microbiol Infect 2018; 25:555-561. [PMID: 30472426 DOI: 10.1016/j.cmi.2018.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2018] [Revised: 10/25/2018] [Accepted: 11/03/2018] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Antimicrobial stewardship aims to optimize antibiotic use and minimize selection of antimicrobial resistance. The methodological quality of published studies in this field is unknown. AIMS Our objective was to perform a comprehensive systematic review of antimicrobial stewardship research design and identify features which limit validity and translation of research findings into clinical practice. SOURCES The following online database was searched: PubMed. STUDY ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA Studies published between January 1950 and January 2017, evaluating any antimicrobial stewardship intervention in the community or hospital setting, without restriction on study design or outcome. CONTENT We extracted data on pre-specified design quality features and factors that may influence design choices including (1) clinical setting, (2) age group studied, (3) when the study was conducted, (4) geographical region, and (5) financial support received. The initial search yielded 17 382 articles; 1008 were selected for full-text screening, of which 825 were included. Most studies (675/825, 82%) were non-experimental; 104 (15%) used interrupted time series analysis, 41 (6%) used external controls, and 19 (3%) used both. Studies in the community setting fulfilled a median of five out of 10 quality features (IQR 3-7) and 3 (IQR 2-4) in the hospital setting. Community setting studies (25%, 205/825) were significantly more likely to use randomization (OR 5.9; 95% CI 3.8-9.2), external controls (OR 5.6; 95% CI 3.6-8.5), and multiple centres (OR 10.5; 95% CI 7.1-15.7). From all studies, only 48% (398/825) reported clinical and 23% (190/825) reported microbiological outcomes. Quality did not improve over time. IMPLICATIONS Overall quality of antimicrobial stewardship studies is low and has not improved over time. Most studies do not report clinical and microbiological outcome data. Studies conducted in the community setting were associated with better quality. These limitations should inform the design of future stewardship evaluations so that a robust evidence base can be built to guide clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- V A Schweitzer
- Julius Center for Health Sciences and Primary Care, University Medical Centre Utrecht, The Netherlands.
| | - I van Heijl
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Medical Microbiology, Tergooi Hospital, Hilversum/Blaricum, The Netherlands
| | - C H van Werkhoven
- Julius Center for Health Sciences and Primary Care, University Medical Centre Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - J Islam
- Department of Global Health and Infection, Brighton and Sussex Medical School, Falmer, UK
| | - K D Hendriks-Spoor
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Medical Microbiology, Tergooi Hospital, Hilversum/Blaricum, The Netherlands
| | - J Bielicki
- Paediatric Infectious Disease Research Group, St George's University of London, London, UK
| | - M J M Bonten
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - A S Walker
- MRC Clinical Trials Unit, University College London, London, UK
| | - M J Llewelyn
- Department of Global Health and Infection, Brighton and Sussex Medical School, Falmer, UK
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144
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McCarthy KN, Hawke A, Dempsey EM. Antimicrobial stewardship in the neonatal unit reduces antibiotic exposure. Acta Paediatr 2018; 107:1716-1721. [PMID: 29603353 DOI: 10.1111/apa.14337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2018] [Revised: 03/09/2018] [Accepted: 03/21/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
AIM Antimicrobial stewardship plays an important role in ensuring that the appropriate drug, dose, route and duration are employed to provide adequate treatment while minimising the risks of unnecessary antibiotic use. Surveillance of antibiotic use with prescriber feedback is recommended as a high-impact stewardship intervention. The aim of this study was to reduce unnecessary antimicrobial use in a neonatal unit. METHODS A prospective audit was performed to assess compliance with antimicrobial guidelines. Following this, educational interventions were applied, electronic prescribing was introduced to the neonatal unit, and re-audit was performed. The primary outcome was a reduction in days of therapy (DOT). RESULTS There were 312 neonatal admissions. There was a significant overall reduction in the primary outcome of DOT/1000 patient days from 572 to 417 DOT. This represents a 27% reduction in total antibiotic use. Prolonged antibiotic treatment courses >36 hours in negative sepsis evaluations were reduced from 82 DOT to 7.5 DOT. Similarly, treatment courses greater than five days for culture-negative sepsis were reduced from 46.5 DOT to 7 DOT. CONCLUSION Monitoring antibiotic prescribing data can provide useful insights into the trends of antibiotic use and also inform clinicians of potential areas where antibiotic use may be safely reduced.
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Affiliation(s)
- KN McCarthy
- Department of Paediatrics and Child Health; Neonatal Intensive Care Unit; Cork Ireland
| | - A Hawke
- Department of Paediatrics and Child Health; Neonatal Intensive Care Unit; Cork Ireland
| | - EM Dempsey
- Department of Paediatrics and Child Health; Neonatal Intensive Care Unit; Cork Ireland
- INFANT, Irish Centre for Fetal and Neonatal Translational Research; University College Cork; Cork Ireland
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145
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Han W, Cao Y. [Research advances in rational use of antibiotics in neonates]. ZHONGGUO DANG DAI ER KE ZA ZHI = CHINESE JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY PEDIATRICS 2018; 20:876-880. [PMID: 30369368 PMCID: PMC7389037 DOI: 10.7499/j.issn.1008-8830.2018.10.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2018] [Accepted: 09/04/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Antibiotics are commonly used in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU), but unnecessary or long-time exposure to antibiotics early after birth can increase the risk of poor prognosis of neonates. Antibiotic treatment in the NICU often begins with empiric therapy, but no uniform standards have been established for the initiation and course of empiric therapy. In neonates with negative bacterial culture results and stable clinical manifestations, empiric antibiotic therapy should be terminated in a timely manner. There are significant differences in the use of antibiotics in different NICUs. A targeted antimicrobial stewardship program is an effective way for optimizing the use of antibiotics in the NICU.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen Han
- Department of Pediatrics, Karamay Central Hospital, Karamay, Xinjiang 834000, China.
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146
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McPherson C, Liviskie C, Zeller B, Nelson MP, Newland JG. Antimicrobial Stewardship in Neonates: Challenges and Opportunities. Neonatal Netw 2018; 37:116-123. [PMID: 29615159 DOI: 10.1891/0730-0832.37.2.116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Neonatal infections result in significant morbidity and mortality. Antibiotics are vital for the treatment of infections but disrupt the neonatal microbiome, put the infant at risk for an adverse drug reaction, and may lead to the development of antibiotic resistance. Immediately after birth, clinicians must determine which infants require empiric antibiotics. Online risk stratification tools may provide a superior approach to decision trees. In infants who require empiric therapy for early-onset sepsis, ampicillin and an aminoglycoside with dosing based on recent pharmacokinetic studies represents the most appropriate first-line agents; third-generation cephalosporins should be reserved for patients with a high likelihood of Gram-negative meningitis. An antistaphylococcal penicillin and gentamicin should be utilized for suspected late-onset sepsis. Vancomycin and other broad-spectrum agents are reserved for patients with a history of resistant organisms. Antibiotic duration should be guided by understanding the clinical indications and obtaining the necessary cultures appropriately (i.e., adequate volume blood cultures). In the absence of a positive culture, antibiotic duration should often be limited. Individual institutions should leverage a multidisciplinary, interprofessional team to identify opportunities for antimicrobial stewardship. A collaborative, transparent system is required to change unit culture and generate a sustained impact on antibiotic utilization with optimal patient outcomes.
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147
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Schulman J, Profit J, Lee HC, Dueñas G, Bennett MV, Parucha J, Jocson MA, Gould JB. Variations in Neonatal Antibiotic Use. Pediatrics 2018; 142:peds.2018-0115. [PMID: 30177514 PMCID: PMC6188671 DOI: 10.1542/peds.2018-0115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/09/2018] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES We sought to identify whether and how the NICU antibiotic use rate (AUR), clinical correlates, and practice variation changed between 2013 and 2016 and attempted to identify AUR ranges that are consistent with objectively determined bacterial and/or fungal disease burdens. METHODS In a retrospective cohort study of >54 000 neonates annually at >130 California NICUs from 2013 to 2016, we computed nonparametric linear correlation and compared AURs among years using a 2-sample test of proportions. We stratified by level of NICU care and participation in externally organized stewardship efforts. RESULTS By 2016, the overall AUR declined 21.9% (95% confidence interval [CI] 21.9%-22.0%), reflecting 42 960 fewer antibiotic days. Among NICUs in externally organized antibiotic stewardship efforts, the AUR declined 28.7% (95% CI 28.6%-28.8%) compared with 16.2% (95% CI 16.1%-16.2%) among others. The intermediate NICU AUR range narrowed, but the distribution of values did not shift toward lower values as it did for other levels of care. The 2016 AUR correlated neither with proven infection nor necrotizing enterocolitis. The 2016 regional NICU AUR correlated with surgical volume (ρ = 0.53; P = .01), mortality rate (ρ = 0.57; P = .004), and average length of stay (ρ = 0.62; P = .002) and was driven by 3 NICUs with the highest AUR values (30%-57%). CONCLUSIONS Unexplained antibiotic use has declined but continues. Currently measured clinical correlates generally do not help explain AUR values that are above the lowest quartile cutpoint of 14.4%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph Schulman
- California Children's Services, California Department of Health Care Services, Sacramento, California;
| | - Jochen Profit
- Perinatal Epidemiology and Health Outcomes Research Unit, Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, California;,Lucile Packard Children’s Hospital, Palo Alto, California;,California Perinatal Quality Care Collaborative, Stanford, California
| | - Henry C. Lee
- Perinatal Epidemiology and Health Outcomes Research Unit, Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, California;,Lucile Packard Children’s Hospital, Palo Alto, California;,California Perinatal Quality Care Collaborative, Stanford, California
| | - Grace Dueñas
- Perinatal Epidemiology and Health Outcomes Research Unit, Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, California;,Lucile Packard Children’s Hospital, Palo Alto, California;,California Perinatal Quality Care Collaborative, Stanford, California
| | - Mihoko V. Bennett
- Perinatal Epidemiology and Health Outcomes Research Unit, Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, California;,Lucile Packard Children’s Hospital, Palo Alto, California;,California Perinatal Quality Care Collaborative, Stanford, California
| | - Janella Parucha
- California Perinatal Quality Care Collaborative, Stanford, California
| | - Maria A.L. Jocson
- California Children’s Services, California Department of Health Care Services, Sacramento, California
| | - Jeffrey B. Gould
- Perinatal Epidemiology and Health Outcomes Research Unit, Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, California;,Lucile Packard Children’s Hospital, Palo Alto, California;,California Perinatal Quality Care Collaborative, Stanford, California
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148
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW We aim to systematically review the literature on the effectiveness of pediatric antimicrobial stewardship programs (ASPs) and antimicrobial stewardship (AS) strategies in the United States (US) inpatient setting. Furthermore, we review current gaps and challenges for unique pediatric populations and those in ambulatory settings. RECENT FINDINGS Misuse and overuse of antimicrobials have been identified as key factors for antimicrobial resistance (AR). Multiple professional organizations support the implementation of hospital-based ASPs to decrease antimicrobial consumption, improve patient outcomes, and reduce healthcare costs. There is limited data on the effectiveness of inpatient pediatric ASPs and AS strategies in unique populations. Furthermore, there is a paucity of evidence on ASPs in ambulatory settings. This review contributes to the growing body of evidence that supports the use of pediatric ASPs to optimize antimicrobial therapy in the inpatient setting as well as in unique patient populations and ambulatory settings. Active stewardship is critical and antimicrobial consumption is a key outcome metric for programs.
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149
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Flannery DD, Ross RK, Mukhopadhyay S, Tribble AC, Puopolo KM, Gerber JS. Temporal Trends and Center Variation in Early Antibiotic Use Among Premature Infants. JAMA Netw Open 2018; 1:e180164. [PMID: 30646054 PMCID: PMC6324528 DOI: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2018.0164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
IMPORTANCE Premature infants are frequently administered empirical antibiotic therapy at birth. Early and prolonged antibiotic exposures among infants without culture-confirmed infection have been associated with increased risk of adverse outcomes. OBJECTIVE To examine early antibiotic use among premature infants over time and across hospitals in the United States. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS This retrospective cohort study used a comprehensive administrative database of inpatient encounters from 297 academic and community hospitals across the United States to examine data concerning very low-birth-weight (VLBW) infants (<1500 g), including extremely low-birth-weight (ELBW) infants (<1000 g), who were admitted to the neonatal intensive care unit and survived for at least 1 day. Data collection took place in November 2015 and analysis took place from February 2016 to November 2016. EXPOSURES Antibiotic initiation within the first 3 days of age and subsequent antibiotic administration for more than 5 days. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES Temporal trends in early antibiotic initiation and duration from 2009 to 2015, and center variation in early antibiotic use from 2014 to 2015. RESULTS We identified 40 364 VLBW infants (20 447 female [50.7%]) who survived for at least 1 day, including 12 947 ELBW infants, from 297 centers. The majority of premature infants had early antibiotic initiation (31 715 VLBW infants [78.6%] and 11 264 ELBW infants [87.0%]), and no differences were observed over time in temporal trend analyses (P = .12 for VLBW and P = .52 for ELBW). The annual risk difference in the proportion of VLBW infants administered early antibiotic therapy ranged from -0.75% (95% CI, -1.61% to 0.11%) to -0.87% (95% CI, -2.04% to 0.30%); in ELBW infants the annual risk difference ranged from -0.34% (95% CI, -1.28% to 0.61%) to -0.38% (95% CI, -1.61% to 0.85%). There was a small but significant decrease over time in the rate of prolonged antibiotic duration for VLBW infants (P = .02), but not for ELBW infants (P = .22). The annual risk difference in the proportion of VLBW infants with prolonged antibiotic duration ranged from -0.94% (95% CI, -1.65% to -0.23%) to -1.08% (95% CI, -2.00% to -0.16%); in ELBW infants the annual risk difference ranged from -0.72% (95% CI, -1.83% to 0.39%) to -0.75% (95% CI, -1.96% to 0.46%). We also observed variation in early antibiotic exposures across centers. Sixty-nine of 113 centers (61.1%) started antibiotic therapy for more than 75% of VLBW infants, and 56 of 66 centers (84.8%) started antibiotic therapy for more than 75% of ELBW infants. The proportion of VLBW and ELBW infants administered prolonged antibiotics ranged from 0% to 80.4% and 0% to 92.0% across centers, respectively. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE Most premature infants in this study received empirical early antibiotic therapy with little change over a recent 7-year period. The variability in exposure rates across centers, however, suggests that neonatal antimicrobial stewardship efforts are warranted to optimize antibiotic use for VLBW and ELBW infants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dustin D Flannery
- Center for Pediatric Clinical Effectiveness, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
- Division of Neonatology, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia
| | - Rachael K Ross
- Center for Pediatric Clinical Effectiveness, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
- Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia
| | - Sagori Mukhopadhyay
- Center for Pediatric Clinical Effectiveness, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
- Division of Neonatology, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia
| | - Alison C Tribble
- Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, C. S. Mott Children's Hospital, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
| | - Karen M Puopolo
- Center for Pediatric Clinical Effectiveness, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
- Division of Neonatology, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia
| | - Jeffrey S Gerber
- Center for Pediatric Clinical Effectiveness, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
- Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia
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150
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Bizzarro MJ. Avoiding Unnecessary Antibiotic Exposure in Premature Infants: Understanding When (Not) to Start and When to Stop. JAMA Netw Open 2018; 1:e180165. [PMID: 30646051 DOI: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2018.0165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Matthew J Bizzarro
- Division of Perinatal Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut
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