101
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Graves' disease: Introduction, epidemiology, endogenous and environmental pathogenic factors. ANNALES D'ENDOCRINOLOGIE 2018; 79:599-607. [PMID: 30342794 DOI: 10.1016/j.ando.2018.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Graves' disease is the most frequent cause of hyperthyroidism. Many questions remain about the choice of diagnostic evaluations and treatment strategy according to clinical context (age, gender, pregnancy, etc.) and about the best management of the main extrathyroidal complication that is Graves orbitopathy. The exact pathogenic mechanisms are not fully clear. They associate genetic factors, interactions between endogenous and environmental factors, and immune system dysregulation. Graves' orbitopathy is one of the consequences of this partial understanding. Iatrogenic Graves' disease induced by the new targeted therapies are described and could help to better understand the molecular pathways involved in the disease and to develop new therapeutic approaches.
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102
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Linardi A, Michou E, Ilias I, Petychaki F, Kakoulidis I, Pappa A, Koukkou E. Resistant Thyrotoxicosis due to Graves' Disease in Pregnancy: Case Report and Review of the Literature. Cureus 2018; 10:e3232. [PMID: 30410838 PMCID: PMC6207494 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.3232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The effective management of Graves' disease (GD) during pregnancy is crucial for maternal and neonatal well-being. Conventional treatment of GD during pregnancy includes antithyroid drugs (ATDs) and surgery, ideally during the second trimester. We report a 27-year-old woman with GD and we present the course of GD during her three consecutive pregnancies. During the first pregnancy, thyrotoxicosis was successfully treated with low doses of antithyroid drugs; in the second pregnancy, thyrotoxicosis was only controlled at the third trimester; while in the third pregnancy, our patient presented with treatment-resistant thyrotoxicosis, which was finally managed with corticosteroids in adjunction with ATDs. Although hyperthyroid, the patient maintained her fertility. Resistance to ATD is a rare condition and in our case was adequately controlled with corticosteroids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anastasia Linardi
- Department of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, E. Venizelou Hospital, Athens, GRC
| | - Ekaterini Michou
- Department of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, E. Venizelou Hospital, Athens, GRC
| | - Ioannis Ilias
- Department of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, E. Venizelou Hospital, Athens, GRC
| | - Foteini Petychaki
- Department of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, E. Venizelou Hospital, Athens , GRC
| | - Ioannis Kakoulidis
- Department of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, E. Venizelou Hospital, Athens, GRC
| | - Athina Pappa
- Department of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, E. Venizelou Hospital, Athens, GRC
| | - Eftychia Koukkou
- Department of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, E. Venizelou Hospital, Athens, GRC
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103
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Léger J, Carel JC. Diagnosis and management of hyperthyroidism from prenatal life to adolescence. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 2018; 32:373-386. [PMID: 30086864 DOI: 10.1016/j.beem.2018.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Hyperthyroidism in children is a rare heterogeneous syndrome characterized by excessive thyroid hormone production. Its manifestations differ according to disease severity. For all forms of hyperthyroidism, treatment aims to restore a euthyroid state, enabling the child to demonstrate appropriate metabolism, growth, and neurocognitive development. Graves' disease is the most frequent cause of hyperthyroidism in children. Treatment modalities include antithyroid drugs, with the advantage that prolonged treatment for several years can be followed by freedom from medical intervention in about 40-50% of cases. It may also be treated with radioactive iodine or, less frequently, thyroidectomy, these more radical treatments both necessitating subsequent lifelong levothyroxine treatment. Particular care is required in the management of pregnant women with Graves' disease. Fetal and neonatal forms of hyperthyroidism are transient and rare, but nevertheless serious. Here, we provide an overview of the best approach to hyperthyroidism diagnosis and management, from fetal development to adolescence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliane Léger
- Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Universitaire Robert Debré, Service d'Endocrinologie Diabétologie Pédiatrique, Centre de Référence des Maladies Endocriniennes de la Croissance et du développement, F-75019, Paris, France; Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, F-75019, Paris, France; Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM), Unité 1141, DHU PROTECT, F-75019, Paris, France.
| | - Jean Claude Carel
- Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Universitaire Robert Debré, Service d'Endocrinologie Diabétologie Pédiatrique, Centre de Référence des Maladies Endocriniennes de la Croissance et du développement, F-75019, Paris, France; Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, F-75019, Paris, France; Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM), Unité 1141, DHU PROTECT, F-75019, Paris, France
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104
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De Leo S, Pearce EN. Autoimmune thyroid disease during pregnancy. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 2018; 6:575-586. [PMID: 29246752 DOI: 10.1016/s2213-8587(17)30402-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2017] [Revised: 10/09/2017] [Accepted: 10/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Understanding of changes in thyroid function and the consequences of thyroid disease during pregnancy has rapidly grown in the past two decades, and revised American Thyroid Association guidelines on this topic were published in 2017. This Review explores the association between thyroid autoimmunity and complications during and after pregnancy. Thyroid autoimmunity refers to the presence of antibodies to thyroperoxidase or thyroglobulin, or thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor antibodies (TRAbs), or a combination of these, and is present in up to 18% of pregnant women. Thyroid antibodies in pregnant women with normal functioning thyroids (ie, euthyroid) have been associated with several complications, including miscarriage and premature delivery. Treatments to improve pregnancy outcomes are being studied. Whether thyroid antibodies are associated with infertility and assisted reproductive technology outcomes is unclear; although, treatment with low doses of levothyroxine, which is usually used to treat hypothyroidism, can be considered in such situations. Additionally, thyroid antibodies have been associated with other neonatal and maternal complications. All these associations require confirmation in larger prospective studies, and their pathogenic mechanisms need to be better understood. Post-partum thyroiditis is substantially more frequent in women who have thyroid antibodies during pregnancy than in those who do not have thyroid antibodies; however, whether treatment can prevent post-partum thyroiditis in women who are or have been antibody positive is unknown. Finally, TRAbs cross the placenta from the mother to the fetus and can cause fetal or neonatal hyperthyroidism. Therefore, women who are positive for TRAbs during pregnancy should be monitored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simone De Leo
- Division of Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases, Istituto Auxologico Italiano, Milan, Italy; Department of Clinical Sciences and Community Health, University of Milan, Milan, Italy; Section of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Nutrition, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston MA, USA
| | - Elizabeth N Pearce
- Section of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Nutrition, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston MA, USA.
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105
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Fraenkel M, Shafat T, Cahn A, Erez O, Novack V, Tsur A. Low thyroid-stimulating hormone and its persistence beyond the first trimester of pregnancy. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 2018; 142:270-276. [DOI: 10.1002/ijgo.12540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2017] [Revised: 04/13/2018] [Accepted: 05/30/2018] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Merav Fraenkel
- Endocrinology; Soroka University Medical Center and the Faculty of Health Sciences; Ben-Gurion University of the Negev; Beer Sheba Israel
| | - Tali Shafat
- Clinical Research Center; Soroka University Medical Center and the Faculty of Health Sciences; Ben-Gurion University of the Negev; Beer Sheba Israel
| | - Avivit Cahn
- The Diabetes Unit, Endocrinology and Metabolism Unit; Hadassah Hebrew University Hospital; Jerusalem Israel
| | - Offer Erez
- Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology; Soroka University Medical Center and the Faculty of Health Sciences; Ben-Gurion University of the Negev; Beer Sheba Israel
| | - Victor Novack
- Clinical Research Center; Soroka University Medical Center and the Faculty of Health Sciences; Ben-Gurion University of the Negev; Beer Sheba Israel
| | - Anat Tsur
- Endocrinology; Clalit Health Services; Jerusalem Israel
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106
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Wada M, Kita M, Kawasaki K, Kusakabe T, Tagami T, Satoh-Asahara N, Shimatsu A, Hashimoto K. False-positive TSH receptor antibody-a pitfall of third-generation TSH receptor antibody measurements in neonates. Endocr J 2018. [PMID: 29526990 DOI: 10.1507/endocrj.ej17-0426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Maternal Graves' disease (GD) during pregnancy may influence thyroid function in fetuses. Neonates born to mothers with high serum TSH receptor antibody (TRAb) levels have been reported to develop 'neonatal GD'. Therefore, evaluations of serum thyroid hormone and TRAb levels in neonates upon birth are crucial for a prompt diagnosis. At delivery, we measured TRAb with third-generation TRAb test using an M22 human monoclonal antibody in neonates by collecting umbilical cord blood in a blood collection tube with lithium-heparin, which provides a whole blood/plasma sample. In recent years, we have encountered positive TRAb levels (more than 2.0 IU/L) in nineteen neonates born to mothers with GD whose thyroid hormone levels were almost within the reference range and serum TRAb levels were less than 10 IU/L. All the neonates with positive TRAb levels did not exhibit thyrotoxicosis. However, when we measured TRAb levels with serum sample in six out of the nineteen cases, their serum TRAb levels were all negative, suggesting a discrepancy of TRAb levels between in lithium-heparin plasma from umbilical cord blood and serum. Moreover, this discrepancy was observed in neonates born to euthyroid mothers, adult active GD patients and healthy volunteers. Since lithium-heparin plasma from umbilical cord blood is widely used in laboratory tests at delivery, we may encounter 'false-positive' TRAb, which may, in turn, lead to a misdiagnosis of neonatal GD. This is a pitfall of third-generation TRAb measurements in neonates, particularly at delivery, and needs to be considered by obstetricians and neonatologists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michiko Wada
- Department of Endocrinology, Metabolism, and Hypertension, Clinical Research Institute, National Hospital Organization Kyoto Medical Center, Kyoto 612-8555, Japan
| | - Makoto Kita
- Department of Pediatrics, National Hospital Organization Kyoto Medical Center, Kyoto 612-8555, Japan
| | - Kaoru Kawasaki
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, National Hospital Organization Kyoto Medical Center, Kyoto 612-8555, Japan
| | - Toru Kusakabe
- Department of Endocrinology, Metabolism, and Hypertension, Clinical Research Institute, National Hospital Organization Kyoto Medical Center, Kyoto 612-8555, Japan
| | - Tetsuya Tagami
- Department of Endocrinology, Metabolism, and Hypertension, Clinical Research Institute, National Hospital Organization Kyoto Medical Center, Kyoto 612-8555, Japan
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, National Hospital Organization Kyoto Medical Center, Kyoto 612-8555, Japan
| | - Noriko Satoh-Asahara
- Department of Endocrinology, Metabolism, and Hypertension, Clinical Research Institute, National Hospital Organization Kyoto Medical Center, Kyoto 612-8555, Japan
| | - Akira Shimatsu
- Clinical Research Institute, National Hospital Organization Kyoto Medical Center, Kyoto 612-8555, Japan
| | - Koshi Hashimoto
- Department of Preemptive Medicine and Metabolism, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo 113-8510, Japan
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107
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Taylor PN, Albrecht D, Scholz A, Gutierrez-Buey G, Lazarus JH, Dayan CM, Okosieme OE. Global epidemiology of hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism. Nat Rev Endocrinol 2018; 14:301-316. [PMID: 29569622 DOI: 10.1038/nrendo.2018.18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 625] [Impact Index Per Article: 104.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Thyroid hormones are essential for growth, neuronal development, reproduction and regulation of energy metabolism. Hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism are common conditions with potentially devastating health consequences that affect all populations worldwide. Iodine nutrition is a key determinant of thyroid disease risk; however, other factors, such as ageing, smoking status, genetic susceptibility, ethnicity, endocrine disruptors and the advent of novel therapeutics, including immune checkpoint inhibitors, also influence thyroid disease epidemiology. In the developed world, the prevalence of undiagnosed thyroid disease is likely falling owing to widespread thyroid function testing and relatively low thresholds for treatment initiation. However, continued vigilance against iodine deficiency remains essential in developed countries, particularly in Europe. In this report, we review the global incidence and prevalence of hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism, highlighting geographical differences and the effect of environmental factors, such as iodine supplementation, on these data. We also highlight the pressing need for detailed epidemiological surveys of thyroid dysfunction and iodine status in developing countries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter N Taylor
- Thyroid Research Group, Systems Immunity Research Institute, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff, UK
| | - Diana Albrecht
- University Medicine Greifswald, Institute for Community Medicine, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Anna Scholz
- Thyroid Research Group, Systems Immunity Research Institute, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff, UK
| | - Gala Gutierrez-Buey
- Clinica Universidad de Navarra, Department of Endocrinology and Nutrition, Pamplona, Spain
| | - John H Lazarus
- Thyroid Research Group, Systems Immunity Research Institute, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff, UK
| | - Colin M Dayan
- Thyroid Research Group, Systems Immunity Research Institute, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff, UK
| | - Onyebuchi E Okosieme
- Thyroid Research Group, Systems Immunity Research Institute, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff, UK
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108
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Nguyen CT, Sasso EB, Barton L, Mestman JH. Graves' hyperthyroidism in pregnancy: a clinical review. Clin Diabetes Endocrinol 2018; 4:4. [PMID: 29507751 PMCID: PMC5831855 DOI: 10.1186/s40842-018-0054-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2017] [Accepted: 02/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Graves’ hyperthyroidism affects 0.2% of pregnant women. Establishing the correct diagnosis and effectively managing Graves’ hyperthyroidism in pregnancy remains a challenge for physicians. Main The goal of this paper is to review the diagnosis and management of Graves’ hyperthyroidism in pregnancy. The paper will discuss preconception counseling, etiologies of hyperthyroidism, thyroid function testing, pregnancy-related complications, maternal management, including thyroid storm, anti-thyroid drugs and the complications for mother and fetus, fetal and neonatal thyroid function, neonatal management, and maternal post-partum management. Conclusion Establishing the diagnosis of Graves’ hyperthyroidism early, maintaining euthyroidism, and achieving a serum total T4 in the upper limit of normal throughout pregnancy is key to reducing the risk of maternal, fetal, and newborn complications. The key to a successful pregnancy begins with preconception counseling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline T Nguyen
- 1Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes, & Metabolism, Department of Medicine, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, 1540 Alcazar Street, CHP 204, Los Angeles, Ca 90033 USA
| | - Elizabeth B Sasso
- 2Division of Maternal Fetal Medicine, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, 2020 Zonal Avenue, IRD 220, Los Angeles, CA 90033 USA
| | - Lorayne Barton
- 3Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, LAC+USC Medical Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, Ca 90033 USA
| | - Jorge H Mestman
- 4Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes & Metabolism, Department of Medicine and Obstetrics and Gynecology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, 1540 Alcazar Street CHP 204, Los Angeles, California 90033 USA
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109
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Abstract
Neonatal thyrotoxicosis (hyperthyroidism) is less prevalent than congenital hypothyroidism; however, it can lead to significant morbidity and mortality if not promptly recognized and adequately treated. Most cases are transient, secondary to maternal autoimmune hyperthyroidism (Graves disease [GD]). This article summarizes recommendations for screening and management of hyperthyroidism in both the fetal and neonatal periods, with a focus on neonatal thyrotoxicosis secondary to maternal GD. Early monitoring and treatment are crucial for optimizing short-term and long-term patient outcomes.
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110
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van Dijk MM, Smits IH, Fliers E, Bisschop PH. Maternal Thyrotropin Receptor Antibody Concentration and the Risk of Fetal and Neonatal Thyrotoxicosis: A Systematic Review. Thyroid 2018; 28:257-264. [PMID: 29325496 DOI: 10.1089/thy.2017.0413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In pregnant women with Graves' disease, maternal thyrotropin receptor antibodies (TRAb) can cross the placenta and induce fetal or neonatal thyrotoxicosis. Symptoms of fetal thyrotoxicosis are tachycardia, intrauterine growth restriction, and intra-uterine death. Recommendations on an upper limit of TRAb concentrations below which intensive fetal monitoring can be safely omitted vary between different guidelines. The objective of this study was to define an evidence-based cutoff level for maternal TRAb necessitating additional fetal monitoring during pregnancy. METHODS A literature search was performed to identify studies on pregnant women with Graves' disease and fetal and/or neonatal thyrotoxicosis. Only studies that reported TRAb were included. RESULTS From a total of 229 identified titles, 20 articles could be included in the analysis. A total of 53 cases of fetal and/or neonatal thyrotoxicosis were described. The lowest level of maternal TRAb leading to neonatal thyrotoxicosis was 4.4 U/L, which corresponds to 3.7 times the upper limit of normal. The level of evidence for this threshold is moderate to low. CONCLUSION In women with Graves' disease, intensive fetal monitoring is recommended when maternal TRAb concentrations are >3.7 times the upper limit of normal. This cutoff level should be interpreted with caution, since evidence is limited.
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Affiliation(s)
- Myrthe M van Dijk
- 1 Center for Reproductive Medicine, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Amsterdam , Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Iris H Smits
- 2 Departments of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam , Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Eric Fliers
- 2 Departments of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam , Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Peter H Bisschop
- 2 Departments of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam , Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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111
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Taylor PN, Zouras S, Min T, Nagarahaj K, Lazarus JH, Okosieme O. Thyroid Screening in Early Pregnancy: Pros and Cons. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2018; 9:626. [PMID: 30410467 PMCID: PMC6209822 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2018.00626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2018] [Accepted: 10/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Universal thyroid screening in pregnancy is a key debate in thyroidology and obstetrics. It is well-established that thyroid hormones are essential for maintaining pregnancy and optimal fetal development. Thyroid dysfunction is common in women of child-bearing age and also results in substantial adverse obstetric and child neurodevelopmental outcomes. Furthermore, thyroid dysfunction is readily diagnosed with reliable blood tests and easily corrected with inexpensive and available treatments. Screening only high-risk patients appears to miss the majority of cases and economic models show that compared to high-risk screening, universal screening is cost effective even if only overt hypothyroidism was assumed to have adverse obstetric effects. As a result, several countries now implement universal screening. Opponents of universal thyroid screening argue that asymptomatic borderline thyroid abnormalities such as subclinical hypothyroidism and isolated hypothyroxinemia form the bulk of cases of thyroid dysfunction seen in pregnancy and that there is a lack of high quality evidence to support their screening and correction. This review critically appraises the literature, examines the pros and cons of universal thyroid screening using criteria laid down by Wilson and Jungner. It also highlights the growing evidence for universal thyroid screening and indicates the key challenges and practicalities of implementation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter N. Taylor
- Thyroid Research Group, Systems Immunity Research Institute, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff, United Kingdom
- *Correspondence: Peter N. Taylor
| | - Stamatios Zouras
- Endocrinology and Diabetes Department, Prince Charles Hospital, Cwm Taf University Health Board, Merthyr Tydfil, United Kingdom
| | - Thinzar Min
- Endocrinology and Diabetes Department, University Hospital of Wales, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Kalyani Nagarahaj
- Endocrinology and Diabetes Department, University Hospital of Wales, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - John H. Lazarus
- Thyroid Research Group, Systems Immunity Research Institute, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Onyebuchi Okosieme
- Thyroid Research Group, Systems Immunity Research Institute, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff, United Kingdom
- Endocrinology and Diabetes Department, Prince Charles Hospital, Cwm Taf University Health Board, Merthyr Tydfil, United Kingdom
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112
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Abstract
Thyroid hormones are crucial for normal cognition and neurodevelopment in children. The introduction of the screening programs for congenital hypothyroidism has decreased the incidence of untreated congenital hypothyroidism. As maternal thyroid disease is common, and may impact on thyroid gland development and function in the fetus, optimal management is crucial. This review discusses thyroid function and the impact of maternal thyroid disease on the fetus and neonate, as well as the influence of thyroid hormones, thyroid antibodies and the excretion of thyroid medication into breast milk on infant thyroid function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meera Mallya
- Neonatal Unit, Rosie Hospital, Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - Amanda L Ogilvy-Stuart
- Neonatal Unit, Rosie Hospital, Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK.
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113
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Panaitescu A, Nicolaides K. FETAL GOITRE IN MATERNAL GRAVES' DISEASE. ACTA ENDOCRINOLOGICA (BUCHAREST, ROMANIA : 2005) 2018; 14:85-89. [PMID: 31149240 PMCID: PMC6516592 DOI: 10.4183/aeb.2018.85] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Fetal goitre is found in about 1 in 5,000 births, usually in association with maternal Graves' disease, due to transplacental passage of high levels of thyroid stimulating antibodies or of anti-thyroid drugs. A goitre can cause complications attributable to its size and to the associated thyroid dysfunction. Fetal ultrasound examination allows easy recognition of the goitre but is not reliable in distinguishing between fetal hypo- and hyperthyroidism. Assessment of the maternal condition and, in some cases, cordocentesis provide adequate diagnosis of the fetal thyroid function. First-line treatment consists of adjusting the dose of maternal anti-thyroid drugs. Delivery is aimed at term. In cases with large goitres, caesarean-section is indicated.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - K. Nicolaides
- Fetal Medicine Research Institute, King’s College Hospital, London, UK
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114
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Hyperthyroidism in pregnant women should be adequately treated to prevent maternal and fetal complications. The treatment of choice in pregnancy is antithyroidal medications (ATDs). The risk of embryopathies associated with the use of Methimazole (MMI) and Propylthiouracil (PTU) in early pregnancy is a matter of clinical attention and concern. This review describes current evidence and how scientific findings are reflected in current clinical guidelines. RECENT FINDINGS Embryopathies after the use of ATDs were previously mainly described in case reports and considered rare. Recent large observational studies, including nonexposed control groups, have quantified an increased risk of embryopathies associated with use of ATDs during pregnancy. Findings suggest a risk of embryopathies with the use of both MMI and PTU, but the pattern of embryopathies differs, and embryopathies with the use of PTU appear less severe. SUMMARY Current guidelines highlight the need for clinical attention on the use of ATDs in early pregnancy. Patients managed on ATDs for the treatment of hyperthyroidism should be counseled to report a pregnancy as early as possible. PTU is the recommended treatment in early pregnancy, but if the risk of relapse or worsening of hyperthyroidism is considered low, it is suggested that ATD treatment can be withdrawn followed by frequent monitoring of thyroid function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stine L Andersen
- aDepartment of Endocrinology bDepartment of Clinical Biochemistry, Aalborg University Hospital, Aalborg, Denmark
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115
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Korevaar TIM, Medici M, Visser TJ, Peeters RP. Thyroid disease in pregnancy: new insights in diagnosis and clinical management. Nat Rev Endocrinol 2017; 13:610-622. [PMID: 28776582 DOI: 10.1038/nrendo.2017.93] [Citation(s) in RCA: 209] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Adequate thyroid hormone availability is important for an uncomplicated pregnancy and optimal fetal growth and development. Overt thyroid disease is associated with a wide range of adverse obstetric and child development outcomes. An increasing number of studies now indicate that milder forms of thyroid dysfunction are also associated with these adverse pregnancy outcomes. The definitions of both overt and subclinical thyroid dysfunction have changed considerably over the past few years, as new data indicate that the commonly used fixed upper limits of 2.5 mU/l or 3.0 mU/l for thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) are too low to define an abnormal thyroid function. Furthermore, some studies now show that the reference ranges are not necessarily the best cut-off for identifying pregnancies at high risk of adverse outcomes. In addition, data suggest that thyroid peroxidase autoantibody positivity and high or low concentrations of human chorionic gonadotropin seem to have a more prominent role in the interpretation of thyroid dysfunction than previously thought. Data on the effects of thyroid disease treatment are lacking, but some studies indicate that clinicians should be aware of the potential for overtreatment with levothyroxine. Here, we put studies from the past decade on reference ranges for TSH, determinants of thyroid dysfunction, risks of adverse outcomes and options for treatment into perspective. In addition, we provide an overview of the current views on thyroid physiology during pregnancy and discuss strategies to identify high-risk individuals who might benefit from levothyroxine treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim I M Korevaar
- Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus Medical Center, Postbus 2040, 3000 CA, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Academic Center for Thyroid Diseases, Erasmus Medical Center, Postbus 2040, 3000 CA, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Marco Medici
- Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus Medical Center, Postbus 2040, 3000 CA, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Academic Center for Thyroid Diseases, Erasmus Medical Center, Postbus 2040, 3000 CA, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Theo J Visser
- Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus Medical Center, Postbus 2040, 3000 CA, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Academic Center for Thyroid Diseases, Erasmus Medical Center, Postbus 2040, 3000 CA, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Robin P Peeters
- Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus Medical Center, Postbus 2040, 3000 CA, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Academic Center for Thyroid Diseases, Erasmus Medical Center, Postbus 2040, 3000 CA, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
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116
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El Guendouz F, Hammoune N, Hommadi A, Zerhouni H, Baizri H. Carbimazole embryopathy. ANNALES D'ENDOCRINOLOGIE 2017; 78:478-480. [PMID: 28870708 DOI: 10.1016/j.ando.2016.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2015] [Revised: 05/22/2015] [Accepted: 01/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Fayçal El Guendouz
- Department of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Avicenne Military Hospital, Marrakech, Morocco.
| | - Nabil Hammoune
- Department of Radiology, third Military Hospital, El Aiun, Morocco.
| | | | - Hicham Zerhouni
- Department of Pediatric Surgical Emergencies, Children's Hospital, Rabat, Morocco.
| | - Hicham Baizri
- Department of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Avicenne Military Hospital, Marrakech, Morocco.
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Song R, Lin H, Chen Y, Zhang X, Feng W. Effects of methimazole and propylthiouracil exposure during pregnancy on the risk of neonatal congenital malformations: A meta-analysis. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0180108. [PMID: 28671971 PMCID: PMC5495385 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0180108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2017] [Accepted: 06/11/2017] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Objective The aim of this study was to determine the effect of exposure to different antithyroid drugs during pregnancy on the incidence of neonatal congenital malformations. Methods A meta-analysis was performed to compare the incidence of neonatal congenital malformations after exposure to different antithyroid drugs during pregnancy. Twelve studies that met the inclusion criteria were included in this meta-analysis. PubMed, Embase, and CENTRAL databases were searched from inception until January 2017. Study designs included case–control studies, prospective cohort studies, and retrospective cohort studies. Results Twelve studies involving 8028 participants with exposure to different antithyroid drugs during pregnancy were included in this study; however, only 10 studies involving 5059 participants involved exposure to different antithyroid drugs exactly during pregnancy. Our results indicated that exposure to methimazole (MMI)/carbimazole (CMZ) only during pregnancy significantly increased the risk of neonatal congenital malformations compared to no antithyroid drug exposure (OR 1.88; 95%CI 1.33 to 2.65; P = 0.0004). No differences were observed between propylthiouracil (PTU) exposure and no antithyroid drug exposure only during pregnancy (OR 0.81; 95%CI 0.58 to 1.15; P = 0.24). Exposure to MMI/CMZ only during pregnancy significantly increased the risk of neonatal congenital malformations compared to that associated with exposure to PTU (OR 1.90; 95%CI 1.30 to 2.78; P = 0.001). Conclusion For pregnant women with hyperthyroidism, exposure to MMI/CMZ significantly increased the incidence of neonatal congenital malformations compared to exposure to PTU and no antithyroid drug exposure; however, no differences were observed between PTU exposure and no antithyroid drug exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rongjing Song
- Department of Pharmacy, Peking University People’s Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Hepu Lin
- Affiliated Bayi Brain Hospital, PLA Army General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Yue Chen
- Department of Pharmacy, Peking University People’s Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Xiuying Zhang
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Peking University People's Hospital, Beijing, China
- * E-mail: (XYZ); (WYF)
| | - Wanyu Feng
- Department of Pharmacy, Peking University People’s Hospital, Beijing, China
- * E-mail: (XYZ); (WYF)
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Abstract
Maternal autoantibodies can cross the placenta and cause fetal damage. This article summarizes the development and management of fetal thyroid goiter in response to maternal Graves' disease and/or its treatment with antithyroid medication, fetal heart block due to maternal anti-Ro and anti-La antibodies, fetal athrogryposis multiplex congenita in association with maternal myasthenia gravis and fetal brain hemorrhage due to maternal autoimmune thrombocytopenia.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kypros Nicolaides
- a Fetal Medicine Research Institute , King's College Hospital , London , UK
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119
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Opazo MC, Haensgen H, Bohmwald K, Venegas LF, Boudin H, Elorza AA, Simon F, Fardella C, Bueno SM, Kalergis AM, Riedel CA. Imprinting of maternal thyroid hormones in the offspring. Int Rev Immunol 2017; 36:240-255. [DOI: 10.1080/08830185.2016.1277216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- María Cecilia Opazo
- Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas, Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas y Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile
| | - Henny Haensgen
- The Picower Institute for Learning and Memory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Karen Bohmwald
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Luis F. Venegas
- Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas, Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas y Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile
| | | | - Alvaro A. Elorza
- Centro de Investigaciones Biomedicas, Millenium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas y Faculta de Medicina, Universidad Andres Bello
| | - Felipe Simon
- Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas, Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas y Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile
| | - Carlos Fardella
- Millenium Institute on Immunology and immunotherapy, Departamento de Endocrinología, Faculta de Medicina, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile; Santiago, Chile
| | - Susan M. Bueno
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
- INSERM UMR1064, Nantes, France
| | - Alexis M. Kalergis
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
- INSERM UMR1064, Nantes, France
| | - Claudia A. Riedel
- Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas, Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas y Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile
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Korevaar TIM, de Rijke YB, Chaker L, Medici M, Jaddoe VWV, Steegers EAP, Visser TJ, Peeters RP. Stimulation of Thyroid Function by Human Chorionic Gonadotropin During Pregnancy: A Risk Factor for Thyroid Disease and a Mechanism for Known Risk Factors. Thyroid 2017; 27:440-450. [PMID: 28049387 DOI: 10.1089/thy.2016.0527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Thyroid autoimmunity is a major risk factor for gestational thyroid disease, and recently various other risk factors have been identified, including maternal age, body mass index (BMI) and parity. Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) is an important determinant of gestational thyroid function, yet it is unknown to what extent differences in hCG concentration affect the risk for thyroid disease. We have recently shown that thyroperoxidase antibody positivity impairs the thyroidal response to hCG stimulation, which may suggest that this is a mechanism through which thyroid autoimmunity acts as a risk factor for thyroid disease. OBJECTIVE The purpose of this study is to determine whether hCG is a risk factor for thyroid disease entities and whether recently identified risk factors for thyroid disease may influence the thyroidal response to hCG stimulation. METHODS Human chorionic gonadotropin, thyrotropin (TSH), and free thyroxine (FT4) were measured in 5435 pregnant women participating in a prospective cohort. The association of hCG with thyroid disease entities, and the association of known risk factors with thyroidal response to hCG stimulation were studied using multivariable linear regression models. RESULTS Higher hCG concentrations were associated with a higher risk of subclinical and overt hyperthyroidism. Lower hCG concentrations were associated with a higher risk of hypothyroxinemia. In contrast, hCG concentrations were not associated with subclinical hypothyroidism. Further analyses showed that in women with hypothyroxinemia, high hCG concentrations still suppressed TSH. However, in women with subclinical hypothyroidism, high hCG concentrations were not associated with higher FT4. Higher BMI, male fetal sex, and maternal parity >2 were associated with a lower thyroidal response to hCG stimulation. CONCLUSIONS Human chorionic gonadotropin is associated with the risk of (subclinical) hyperthyroidism and hypothyroxinemia, but not with the risk of (subclinical) hypothyroidism. Women with hypothyroxinemia have a normal response to thyroidal stimulation by hCG, but this was abnormal in women with subclinical hypothyroidism. Known risk factors for thyroid dysfunction (BMI and parity), and also male fetal sex, are associated with a lower thyroidal response to hCG stimulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim I M Korevaar
- 1 The Generation R Study Group, Erasmus Medical Center , Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- 2 Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus Medical Center , Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- 3 Academic Center for Thyroid Diseases, Erasmus Medical Center , Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Yolanda B de Rijke
- 4 Department of Clinical Chemistry, Erasmus Medical Center - Sophia Children's Hospital , Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Layal Chaker
- 1 The Generation R Study Group, Erasmus Medical Center , Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- 2 Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus Medical Center , Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- 3 Academic Center for Thyroid Diseases, Erasmus Medical Center , Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Marco Medici
- 1 The Generation R Study Group, Erasmus Medical Center , Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- 2 Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus Medical Center , Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- 3 Academic Center for Thyroid Diseases, Erasmus Medical Center , Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Vincent W V Jaddoe
- 1 The Generation R Study Group, Erasmus Medical Center , Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- 5 Department of Pediatrics, Erasmus Medical Center - Sophia Children's Hospital , Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- 6 Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus Medical Center , Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Eric A P Steegers
- 7 Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Erasmus Medical Center - Sophia Children's Hospital , Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Theo J Visser
- 1 The Generation R Study Group, Erasmus Medical Center , Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- 2 Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus Medical Center , Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- 3 Academic Center for Thyroid Diseases, Erasmus Medical Center , Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Robin P Peeters
- 1 The Generation R Study Group, Erasmus Medical Center , Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- 2 Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus Medical Center , Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- 3 Academic Center for Thyroid Diseases, Erasmus Medical Center , Rotterdam, The Netherlands
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Alexander EK, Pearce EN, Brent GA, Brown RS, Chen H, Dosiou C, Grobman WA, Laurberg P, Lazarus JH, Mandel SJ, Peeters RP, Sullivan S. 2017 Guidelines of the American Thyroid Association for the Diagnosis and Management of Thyroid Disease During Pregnancy and the Postpartum. Thyroid 2017; 27:315-389. [PMID: 28056690 DOI: 10.1089/thy.2016.0457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1293] [Impact Index Per Article: 184.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Thyroid disease in pregnancy is a common clinical problem. Since the guidelines for the management of these disorders by the American Thyroid Association (ATA) were first published in 2011, significant clinical and scientific advances have occurred in the field. The aim of these guidelines is to inform clinicians, patients, researchers, and health policy makers on published evidence relating to the diagnosis and management of thyroid disease in women during pregnancy, preconception, and the postpartum period. METHODS The specific clinical questions addressed in these guidelines were based on prior versions of the guidelines, stakeholder input, and input of task force members. Task force panel members were educated on knowledge synthesis methods, including electronic database searching, review and selection of relevant citations, and critical appraisal of selected studies. Published English language articles were eligible for inclusion. The American College of Physicians Guideline Grading System was used for critical appraisal of evidence and grading strength of recommendations. The guideline task force had complete editorial independence from the ATA. Competing interests of guideline task force members were regularly updated, managed, and communicated to the ATA and task force members. RESULTS The revised guidelines for the management of thyroid disease in pregnancy include recommendations regarding the interpretation of thyroid function tests in pregnancy, iodine nutrition, thyroid autoantibodies and pregnancy complications, thyroid considerations in infertile women, hypothyroidism in pregnancy, thyrotoxicosis in pregnancy, thyroid nodules and cancer in pregnant women, fetal and neonatal considerations, thyroid disease and lactation, screening for thyroid dysfunction in pregnancy, and directions for future research. CONCLUSIONS We have developed evidence-based recommendations to inform clinical decision-making in the management of thyroid disease in pregnant and postpartum women. While all care must be individualized, such recommendations provide, in our opinion, optimal care paradigms for patients with these disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erik K Alexander
- 1 Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Hypertension, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School , Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Elizabeth N Pearce
- 2 Section of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Nutrition, Boston University School of Medicine , Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Gregory A Brent
- 3 Department of Medicine, VA Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System and David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA , Los Angeles, California
| | - Rosalind S Brown
- 4 Division of Endocrinology, Boston Children's Hospital , Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Herbert Chen
- 5 Department of Surgery, University of Alabama at Birmingham , Birmingham, Alabama
| | - Chrysoula Dosiou
- 6 Division of Endocrinology, Stanford University School of Medicine , Stanford, California
| | - William A Grobman
- 7 Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Northwestern University , Chicago, Illinois
| | - Peter Laurberg
- 8 Departments of Endocrinology & Clinical Medicine, Aalborg University Hospital , Aalborg, Denmark
| | - John H Lazarus
- 9 Institute of Molecular Medicine, Cardiff University , Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Susan J Mandel
- 10 Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania , Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Robin P Peeters
- 11 Department of Internal Medicine and Rotterdam Thyroid Center, Erasmus Medical Center , Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Scott Sullivan
- 12 Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Medical University of South Carolina , Charleston, South Carolina
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Le Donne M, Mento C, Settineri S, Antonelli A, Benvenga S. Postpartum Mood Disorders and Thyroid Autoimmunity. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2017; 8:91. [PMID: 28522989 PMCID: PMC5415609 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2017.00091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2017] [Accepted: 04/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Maria Le Donne
- Unit of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Department of Human Pathology in Adulthood and Childhood “G. Barresi”, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
- *Correspondence: Maria Le Donne,
| | - Carmela Mento
- Department of Cognitive Sciences, Psychology, Educational and Cultural Studies (COSPECS), University of Messina, Messina, Italy
| | - Salvatore Settineri
- Department of Biomedical and Dental Sciences and Morphofunctional Imaging (BIOMORF), University of Messina, Messina, Italy
| | - Alessandro Antonelli
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Salvatore Benvenga
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
- Interdept. Program of Molecular & Clinical Endocrinology and Women’s Endocrine Health, University Hospital Policlinico G. Martino, Messina, Italy
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123
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Bucci I, Giuliani C, Napolitano G. Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone Receptor Antibodies in Pregnancy: Clinical Relevance. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2017; 8:137. [PMID: 28713331 PMCID: PMC5491546 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2017.00137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2017] [Accepted: 06/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Graves' disease is the most common cause of thyrotoxicosis in women of childbearing age. Approximately 1% of pregnant women been treated before, or are being treated during pregnancy for Graves' hyperthyroidism. In pregnancy, as in not pregnant state, thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) receptor (TSHR) antibodies (TRAbs) are the pathogenetic hallmark of Graves' disease. TRAbs are heterogeneous for molecular and functional properties and are subdivided into activating (TSAbs), blocking (TBAbs), or neutral (N-TRAbs) depending on their effect on TSHR. The typical clinical features of Graves' disease (goiter, hyperthyroidism, ophthalmopathy, dermopathy) occur when TSAbs predominate. Graves' disease shows some peculiarities in pregnancy. The TRAbs disturb the maternal as well as the fetal thyroid function given their ability to cross the placental barrier. The pregnancy-related immunosuppression reduces the levels of TRAbs in most cases although they persist in women with active disease as well as in women who received definitive therapy (radioiodine or surgery) before pregnancy. Changes of functional properties from stimulating to blocking the TSHR could occur during gestation. Drug therapy is the treatment of choice for hyperthyroidism during gestation. Antithyroid drugs also cross the placenta and therefore decrease both the maternal and the fetal thyroid hormone production. The management of Graves' disease in pregnancy should be aimed at maintaining euthyroidism in the mother as well as in the fetus. Maternal and fetal thyroid dysfunction (hyperthyroidism as well as hypothyroidism) are in fact associated with several morbidities. Monitoring of the maternal thyroid function, TRAbs measurement, and fetal surveillance are the mainstay for the management of Graves' disease in pregnancy. This review summarizes the biochemical, immunological, and therapeutic aspects of Graves' disease in pregnancy focusing on the role of the TRAbs in maternal and fetal function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ines Bucci
- Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine and Sciences of Aging, Ce.S.I.-Me.T., University of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy
- *Correspondence: Ines Bucci,
| | - Cesidio Giuliani
- Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine and Sciences of Aging, Ce.S.I.-Me.T., University of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy
| | - Giorgio Napolitano
- Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine and Sciences of Aging, Ce.S.I.-Me.T., University of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy
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Andersen SL, Olsen J, Laurberg P. Hypothyroidism and pregnancy loss: comparison with hyperthyroidism and diabetes in a Danish population-based study. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2016; 85:962-970. [PMID: 27312058 DOI: 10.1111/cen.13136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2016] [Revised: 05/22/2016] [Accepted: 06/14/2016] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Hypothyroidism is a common endocrine disease. The frequency of pregnancy loss in women with known hypothyroidism as opposed to women with a later diagnosis of hypothyroidism has not been evaluated and compared with other common endocrine diseases. DESIGN Population-based cohort study using Danish nationwide registers. PARTICIPANTS All pregnancies in Denmark, 1997-2008, resulting in live birth (n = 732 533), spontaneous abortion (n = 112 487) or stillbirth (n = 2937) were identified together with information on maternal hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism and diabetes. METHODS Cox model was used to estimate adjusted hazard ratio (aHR) with 95% confidence interval (95%CI) for spontaneous abortion and stillbirth, reference: no hypo- or hyperthyroidism or diabetes (n = 824 310). RESULTS We identified 4951 pregnancies where maternal hypothyroidism was diagnosed before the pregnancy (group 1) and 2464 pregnancies where maternal hypothyroidism was diagnosed in the 2-year period after the pregnancy (group 2). In group 1, 825 pregnancies (16·7%) resulted in spontaneous abortion which was more frequent than in nonexposed (13·2%), (aHR 1·19 (95%CI 1·12-1·27)), and of the same magnitude as in hyperthyroidism (17·2%, P = 0·5) and diabetes (17·5%, P = 0·2) diagnosed before the pregnancy. In group 2, the frequency was 12·2% (aHR 0·92 (0·84-1·02)). In group 2, 16 pregnancies (0·65%) resulted in stillbirth which was more frequent than in nonexposed (0·36%), (aHR 1·81 (1·11-2·97)), of the same magnitude as in hyperthyroidism (0·82%, P = 0·5) and less frequent than in diabetes (2·9%, P < 0·001) diagnosed after the pregnancy. In group 1, the frequency was 0·40% (aHR 1·11 (0·68-1·82)). CONCLUSIONS Hypothyroidism increased the risk of both early and late pregnancy loss as did hyperthyroidism and in particular diabetes. We hypothesize that undetected or insufficiently treated maternal disease in the pregnancy may be of causal importance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stine Linding Andersen
- Department of Endocrinology, Aalborg University Hospital, Aalborg, Denmark
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Aalborg University Hospital, Aalborg, Denmark
| | - Jørn Olsen
- Department of Clinical Epidemiology, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Peter Laurberg
- Department of Endocrinology, Aalborg University Hospital, Aalborg, Denmark
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark
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125
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Korevaar TIM, Steegers EAP, Chaker L, Medici M, Jaddoe VWV, Visser TJ, de Rijke YB, Peeters RP. The Risk of Preeclampsia According to High Thyroid Function in Pregnancy Differs by hCG Concentration. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2016; 101:5037-5043. [PMID: 27648965 DOI: 10.1210/jc.2016-2397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/13/2023]
Abstract
CONTEXT During pregnancy, there is an increased demand for thyroid hormone. The pregnancy hormone human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) is an important physiological stimulator of thyroid function. Already high-normal maternal free T4 concentrations are associated with a higher risk of preeclampsia. OBJECTIVE The objective of the investigation was to study our hypothesis that hCG concentrations can distinguish a physiological form of high thyroid function from a more pathological form of high thyroid function and that the risk of preeclampsia would differ accordingly. DESIGN TSH, free T4, hCG, or thyroperoxidase antibody concentrations were determined in pregnant women participating in a population-based prospective cohort study. SETTING The study was conducted in the general community. PARTICIPANTS A nonselected sample of 5146 pregnant women participated in the study. INTERVENTIONS There were no interventions. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S) Preeclampsia was measured. RESULTS Women with high hCG-associated high thyroid function did not have a higher risk of preeclampsia than women with normal thyroid function. In contrast, women with low hCG and high thyroid function had a 3.4- to 11.1-fold higher risk of preeclampsia. These risk estimates were amplified in women with a high body mass index. Women with a low hCG and suppressed TSH (<0.10 mU/L) had a 3.2- to 8.9-fold higher risk of preeclampsia. hCG was not associated with preeclampsia, and results remained similar after exclusion of thyroperoxidase antibody-positive women. CONCLUSION This study suggests that, in contrast to women with a high hCG associated high thyroid function, women with low hCG and high thyroid function during pregnancy are at a higher risk of developing preeclampsia. The additional measurement of hCG may therefore help to distinguish a more pathological form of high thyroid function and women at a high risk of preeclampsia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim I M Korevaar
- The Generation R Study Group (T.I.M.K., E.A.P.S., M.M., V.W.V.J.) and Departments of Internal Medicine (T.I.M.K., L.C., M.M., T.J.V., R.B.P.), Obstetrics and Gynecology (E.A.P.S.), Pediatrics (V.W.V.J.), Epidemiology (V.W.V.J.), and Clinical Chemistry (Y.B.d.R.), Erasmus Medical Center and/or Sophia Children's Hospital, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands; and Rotterdam Thyroid Center (T.I.M.K., L.C., M.M., T.J.V., R.B.P.), Erasmus Medical Center, 3000 DR Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Eric A P Steegers
- The Generation R Study Group (T.I.M.K., E.A.P.S., M.M., V.W.V.J.) and Departments of Internal Medicine (T.I.M.K., L.C., M.M., T.J.V., R.B.P.), Obstetrics and Gynecology (E.A.P.S.), Pediatrics (V.W.V.J.), Epidemiology (V.W.V.J.), and Clinical Chemistry (Y.B.d.R.), Erasmus Medical Center and/or Sophia Children's Hospital, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands; and Rotterdam Thyroid Center (T.I.M.K., L.C., M.M., T.J.V., R.B.P.), Erasmus Medical Center, 3000 DR Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Layal Chaker
- The Generation R Study Group (T.I.M.K., E.A.P.S., M.M., V.W.V.J.) and Departments of Internal Medicine (T.I.M.K., L.C., M.M., T.J.V., R.B.P.), Obstetrics and Gynecology (E.A.P.S.), Pediatrics (V.W.V.J.), Epidemiology (V.W.V.J.), and Clinical Chemistry (Y.B.d.R.), Erasmus Medical Center and/or Sophia Children's Hospital, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands; and Rotterdam Thyroid Center (T.I.M.K., L.C., M.M., T.J.V., R.B.P.), Erasmus Medical Center, 3000 DR Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Marco Medici
- The Generation R Study Group (T.I.M.K., E.A.P.S., M.M., V.W.V.J.) and Departments of Internal Medicine (T.I.M.K., L.C., M.M., T.J.V., R.B.P.), Obstetrics and Gynecology (E.A.P.S.), Pediatrics (V.W.V.J.), Epidemiology (V.W.V.J.), and Clinical Chemistry (Y.B.d.R.), Erasmus Medical Center and/or Sophia Children's Hospital, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands; and Rotterdam Thyroid Center (T.I.M.K., L.C., M.M., T.J.V., R.B.P.), Erasmus Medical Center, 3000 DR Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Vincent W V Jaddoe
- The Generation R Study Group (T.I.M.K., E.A.P.S., M.M., V.W.V.J.) and Departments of Internal Medicine (T.I.M.K., L.C., M.M., T.J.V., R.B.P.), Obstetrics and Gynecology (E.A.P.S.), Pediatrics (V.W.V.J.), Epidemiology (V.W.V.J.), and Clinical Chemistry (Y.B.d.R.), Erasmus Medical Center and/or Sophia Children's Hospital, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands; and Rotterdam Thyroid Center (T.I.M.K., L.C., M.M., T.J.V., R.B.P.), Erasmus Medical Center, 3000 DR Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Theo J Visser
- The Generation R Study Group (T.I.M.K., E.A.P.S., M.M., V.W.V.J.) and Departments of Internal Medicine (T.I.M.K., L.C., M.M., T.J.V., R.B.P.), Obstetrics and Gynecology (E.A.P.S.), Pediatrics (V.W.V.J.), Epidemiology (V.W.V.J.), and Clinical Chemistry (Y.B.d.R.), Erasmus Medical Center and/or Sophia Children's Hospital, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands; and Rotterdam Thyroid Center (T.I.M.K., L.C., M.M., T.J.V., R.B.P.), Erasmus Medical Center, 3000 DR Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Yolanda B de Rijke
- The Generation R Study Group (T.I.M.K., E.A.P.S., M.M., V.W.V.J.) and Departments of Internal Medicine (T.I.M.K., L.C., M.M., T.J.V., R.B.P.), Obstetrics and Gynecology (E.A.P.S.), Pediatrics (V.W.V.J.), Epidemiology (V.W.V.J.), and Clinical Chemistry (Y.B.d.R.), Erasmus Medical Center and/or Sophia Children's Hospital, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands; and Rotterdam Thyroid Center (T.I.M.K., L.C., M.M., T.J.V., R.B.P.), Erasmus Medical Center, 3000 DR Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Robin P Peeters
- The Generation R Study Group (T.I.M.K., E.A.P.S., M.M., V.W.V.J.) and Departments of Internal Medicine (T.I.M.K., L.C., M.M., T.J.V., R.B.P.), Obstetrics and Gynecology (E.A.P.S.), Pediatrics (V.W.V.J.), Epidemiology (V.W.V.J.), and Clinical Chemistry (Y.B.d.R.), Erasmus Medical Center and/or Sophia Children's Hospital, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands; and Rotterdam Thyroid Center (T.I.M.K., L.C., M.M., T.J.V., R.B.P.), Erasmus Medical Center, 3000 DR Rotterdam, The Netherlands
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Tingi E, Syed AA, Kyriacou A, Mastorakos G, Kyriacou A. Benign thyroid disease in pregnancy: A state of the art review. J Clin Transl Endocrinol 2016; 6:37-49. [PMID: 29067240 PMCID: PMC5644429 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcte.2016.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2016] [Revised: 11/08/2016] [Accepted: 11/10/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Thyroid dysfunction is the commonest endocrine disorder in pregnancy apart from diabetes. Thyroid hormones are essential for fetal brain development in the embryonic phase. Maternal thyroid dysfunction during pregnancy may have significant adverse maternal and fetal outcomes such as preterm delivery, preeclampsia, miscarriage and low birth weight. In this review we discuss the effect of thyroid disease on pregnancy and the current evidence on the management of different thyroid conditions in pregnancy and postpartum to improve fetal and neonatal outcomes, with special reference to existing guidelines on the topic which we dissect, critique and compare with each other. Overt hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism should be treated appropriately in pregnancy, aiming to maintain euthyroidism. Subclinical hypothyroidism is often pragmatically treated with levothyroxine, although it has not been definitively proven whether this alters maternal or fetal outcomes. Subclinical hyperthyroidism does not usually require treatment and the possibility of non-thyroidal illness or gestational thyrotoxicosis should be considered. Autoimmune thyroid diseases tend to improve during pregnancy but commonly flare-up or emerge in the post-partum period. Accordingly, thyroid auto-antibodies tend to decrease with pregnancy progression. Postpartum thyroiditis should be managed based on the clinical symptoms rather than abnormal biochemical results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Efterpi Tingi
- Obstetrics and Gynaecology, St Mary’s Hospital, Manchester, UK
| | - Akheel A. Syed
- Endocrinology and Diabetes, Salford Royal NHS Foundation Trust, Salford, Greater Manchester, UK
- Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Alexis Kyriacou
- School of Health Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling, UK
- CEDM Centre of Endocrinology, Diabetes & Metabolism, Limassol, Cyprus
| | | | - Angelos Kyriacou
- Endocrinology and Diabetes, Salford Royal NHS Foundation Trust, Salford, Greater Manchester, UK
- CEDM Centre of Endocrinology, Diabetes & Metabolism, Limassol, Cyprus
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128
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Laurberg P, Andersen SL. ENDOCRINOLOGY IN PREGNANCY: Pregnancy and the incidence, diagnosing and therapy of Graves' disease. Eur J Endocrinol 2016; 175:R219-30. [PMID: 27280373 DOI: 10.1530/eje-16-0410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2016] [Accepted: 06/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Thyroid hormones are essential developmental factors, and Graves' disease (GD) may severely complicate a pregnancy. This review describes how pregnancy changes the risk of developing GD, how early pregnancy by several mechanisms leads to considerable changes in the results of the thyroid function tests used to diagnose hyperthyroidism, and how these changes may complicate the diagnosing of GD. Standard therapy of GD in pregnancy is anti-thyroid drugs. However, new studies have shown considerable risk of birth defects if these drugs are used in specific weeks of early pregnancy, and this should be taken into consideration when planning therapy and control of women who may in the future become pregnant. Early pregnancy is a period of major focus in GD, where pregnancy should be diagnosed as soon as possible, and where important and instant change in therapy may be warranted. Such change may be an immediate stop of anti-thyroid drug therapy in patients with a low risk of rapid relapse of hyperthyroidism, or it may be an immediate shift from methimazole/carbimazole (with risk of severe birth defects) to propylthiouracil (with less risk), or maybe to other types of therapy where no risk of birth defects have been observed. In the second half of pregnancy, an important concern is that not only the mother with GD but also her foetus should have normal thyroid function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Laurberg
- Department of Endocrinology Department of Clinical MedicineAalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark
| | - Stine Linding Andersen
- Department of Endocrinology Department of Clinical BiochemistryAalborg University Hospital, Aalborg, Denmark,
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Affiliation(s)
- Terry J Smith
- From the Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Kellogg Eye Center, and the Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan Medical School - both in Ann Arbor (T.J.S.); and the Departments of Endocrinology and Metabolism (L.H.) and Ophthalmology (T.J.S.), Odense University Hospital, University of Southern Denmark, Odense
| | - Laszlo Hegedüs
- From the Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Kellogg Eye Center, and the Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan Medical School - both in Ann Arbor (T.J.S.); and the Departments of Endocrinology and Metabolism (L.H.) and Ophthalmology (T.J.S.), Odense University Hospital, University of Southern Denmark, Odense
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130
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Prunty JJ, Heise CD, Chaffin DG. Graves' Disease Pharmacotherapy in Women of Reproductive Age. Pharmacotherapy 2016; 36:64-83. [PMID: 26799350 DOI: 10.1002/phar.1676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Graves' disease is an autoimmune disorder in which inappropriate stimulation of the thyroid gland results in unregulated secretion of thyroid hormones resulting in hyperthyroidism. Graves' disease is the most common cause of autoimmune hyperthyroidism during pregnancy. Treatment options for Graves' disease include thioamide therapy, partial or total thyroidectomy, and radioactive iodine. In this article, we review guideline recommendations for Graves' disease treatment in women of reproductive age including the recent guideline from the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Controversy regarding appropriate thioamide therapy before, during, and after pregnancy is reviewed. Surgical and radioactive iodine therapy considerations in this patient population are also reviewed. In patients who may find themselves pregnant during therapy or develop Graves' disease during their pregnancy, consideration should be given to the most appropriate treatment course for the mother and fetus. Thioamide therapy should be used with either propylthiouracil or methimazole at appropriate doses that target the upper range of normal to slightly hyperthyroid to avoid creating hypothyroidism in the fetus. Consideration should also be given to the adverse effects of thioamide, such as agranulocytosis and hepatotoxicity, with appropriate patient consultation regarding signs and symptoms. Individuals who wish to breastfeed their infants while taking thioamide should receive the lowest effective dose. Surgery should be reserved for extreme cases and limited to the second trimester, if possible. Radioactive iodine therapy may be used in nonpregnant individuals, with limited harm to future fertility. Radioactive iodine therapy should be withheld in pregnant women and those who are actively breastfeeding. Clinicians should keep abreast of developments in clinical trials and evidence-based recommendations regarding Graves' disease in reproductive-age women for any changes in evidence-based practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy J Prunty
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, West Virginia University School of Pharmacy, Morgantown, West Virginia.,Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Cabell Huntington Hospital, Huntington, West Virginia
| | - Crystal D Heise
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Cabell Huntington Hospital, Huntington, West Virginia.,Department of Pharmacy Practice, Administration, and Research, Marshall University School of Pharmacy, Huntington, West Virginia
| | - David G Chaffin
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Division of Maternal Fetal Medicine, Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine at Marshall University, Huntington, West Virginia
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Ross DS, Burch HB, Cooper DS, Greenlee MC, Laurberg P, Maia AL, Rivkees SA, Samuels M, Sosa JA, Stan MN, Walter MA. 2016 American Thyroid Association Guidelines for Diagnosis and Management of Hyperthyroidism and Other Causes of Thyrotoxicosis. Thyroid 2016; 26:1343-1421. [PMID: 27521067 DOI: 10.1089/thy.2016.0229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1284] [Impact Index Per Article: 160.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Thyrotoxicosis has multiple etiologies, manifestations, and potential therapies. Appropriate treatment requires an accurate diagnosis and is influenced by coexisting medical conditions and patient preference. This document describes evidence-based clinical guidelines for the management of thyrotoxicosis that would be useful to generalist and subspecialty physicians and others providing care for patients with this condition. METHODS The American Thyroid Association (ATA) previously cosponsored guidelines for the management of thyrotoxicosis that were published in 2011. Considerable new literature has been published since then, and the ATA felt updated evidence-based guidelines were needed. The association assembled a task force of expert clinicians who authored this report. They examined relevant literature using a systematic PubMed search supplemented with additional published materials. An evidence-based medicine approach that incorporated the knowledge and experience of the panel was used to update the 2011 text and recommendations. The strength of the recommendations and the quality of evidence supporting them were rated according to the approach recommended by the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation Group. RESULTS Clinical topics addressed include the initial evaluation and management of thyrotoxicosis; management of Graves' hyperthyroidism using radioactive iodine, antithyroid drugs, or surgery; management of toxic multinodular goiter or toxic adenoma using radioactive iodine or surgery; Graves' disease in children, adolescents, or pregnant patients; subclinical hyperthyroidism; hyperthyroidism in patients with Graves' orbitopathy; and management of other miscellaneous causes of thyrotoxicosis. New paradigms since publication of the 2011 guidelines are presented for the evaluation of the etiology of thyrotoxicosis, the management of Graves' hyperthyroidism with antithyroid drugs, the management of pregnant hyperthyroid patients, and the preparation of patients for thyroid surgery. The sections on less common causes of thyrotoxicosis have been expanded. CONCLUSIONS One hundred twenty-four evidence-based recommendations were developed to aid in the care of patients with thyrotoxicosis and to share what the task force believes is current, rational, and optimal medical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas S Ross
- 1 Massachusetts General Hospital , Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Henry B Burch
- 2 Endocrinology - Metabolic Service, Walter Reed National Military Medical Center , Bethesda, Maryland
| | - David S Cooper
- 3 Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine , Baltimore, Maryland
| | | | - Peter Laurberg
- 5 Departments of Clinical Medicine and Endocrinology, Aalborg University and Aalborg University Hospital , Aalborg, Denmark
| | - Ana Luiza Maia
- 6 Thyroid Section, Hospital de Clinicas de Porto Alegre, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul , Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Scott A Rivkees
- 7 Pediatrics - Chairman's Office, University of Florida College of Medicine , Gainesville, Florida
| | - Mary Samuels
- 8 Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Clinical Nutrition, Oregon Health & Science University , Portland, Oregon
| | - Julie Ann Sosa
- 9 Section of Endocrine Surgery, Duke University School of Medicine , Durham, North Carolina
| | - Marius N Stan
- 10 Division of Endocrinology, Mayo Clinic , Rochester, Minnesota
| | - Martin A Walter
- 11 Institute of Nuclear Medicine, University Hospital Bern , Switzerland
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Abstract
Hyperthyroidism in women who are of childbearing age is predominantly of autoimmune origin and caused by Graves' disease. The physiological changes in the maternal immune system during a pregnancy may influence the development of this and other autoimmune diseases. Furthermore, pregnancy-associated physiological changes influence the synthesis and metabolism of thyroid hormones and challenge the interpretation of thyroid function tests in pregnancy. Thyroid hormones are crucial regulators of early development and play an important role in the maintenance of a normal pregnancy and in the development of the fetus, particularly the fetal brain. Untreated or inadequately treated hyperthyroidism is associated with pregnancy complications and may even program the fetus to long-term development of disease. Thus, hyperthyroidism in pregnant women should be carefully managed and controlled, and proper management involves different medical specialties. The treatment of choice in pregnancy is antithyroid drugs (ATDs). These drugs are effective in the control of maternal hyperthyroidism, but they all cross the placenta, and so need careful management and control during the second half of pregnancy considering the risk of fetal hyper- or hypothyroidism. An important aspect in the early pregnancy is that the predominant side effect to the use of ATDs in weeks 6-10 of pregnancy is birth defects that may develop after exposure to available types of ATDs and may be severe. This review focuses on four current perspectives in the management of overt hyperthyroidism in pregnancy, including the etiology and incidence of the disease, how the diagnosis is made, the consequences of untreated or inadequately treated disease, and finally how to treat overt hyperthyroidism in pregnancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stine Linding Andersen
- Department of Endocrinology, Aalborg University Hospital
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Aalborg University Hospital
| | - Peter Laurberg
- Department of Endocrinology, Aalborg University Hospital
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark
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Andersen SL, Olsen J, Laurberg P. Maternal thyroid disease in the Danish National Birth Cohort: prevalence and risk factors. Eur J Endocrinol 2016; 174:203-12. [PMID: 26582484 DOI: 10.1530/eje-15-0816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2015] [Accepted: 11/18/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Thyroid disorders are common in women of reproductive age, but the exact burden of disease before, during and after a pregnancy is not clear. We describe the prevalence of thyroid disease in women enrolled in the Danish National Birth Cohort (DNBC) and investigate some of its risk factors. DESIGN Population-based study within the DNBC, which included 101,032 pregnancies (1997-2003). METHODS We studied women enrolled in the DNBC who gave birth to a live-born child. Information on maternal thyroid disease (hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism, benign goiter/nodules, thyroid cancer, and other) before, during and up to 5 years after the woman's first pregnancy in the cohort was obtained from self-report (telephone interview in median gestational week 17) and from nationwide registers on hospital diagnosis of thyroid disease/thyroid surgery (from 1977) and prescriptions of thyroid drugs (from 1995). RESULTS Of the 77,445 women studied, 3018 (3.9%) were identified with an onset of thyroid disease before (2.0%), during (0.1%) or in the 5-year period after the pregnancy (1.8%). During the pregnancy, 153 (0.2%) women received antithyroid drugs and 365 (0.5%) received thyroid hormone for hypothyroidism (83 after previous hyperthyroidism, 42 after previous surgery for benign goiter/nodules or thyroid cancer). Significant risk factors for maternal thyroid disease were age, parity, origin, iodine intake, smoking, alcohol, and BMI. CONCLUSIONS Around 4% of Danish pregnant women had either a history of thyroid disease or thyroid disease during pregnancy or were diagnosed with thyroid disease for the first-time in the years following a pregnancy. The spectrum of thyroid disease was influenced by demographic and environmental factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stine Linding Andersen
- Departments of EndocrinologyClinical BiochemistryAalborg University Hospital, Sdr. Skovvej 15, 9000 Aalborg, DenmarkDepartment of Clinical EpidemiologyAarhus University Hospital, 8000 Aarhus, DenmarkDepartment of Clinical MedicineAalborg University, 9000 Aalborg, Denmark Departments of EndocrinologyClinical BiochemistryAalborg University Hospital, Sdr. Skovvej 15, 9000 Aalborg, DenmarkDepartment of Clinical EpidemiologyAarhus University Hospital, 8000 Aarhus, DenmarkDepartment of Clinical MedicineAalborg University, 9000 Aalborg, Denmark
| | - Jørn Olsen
- Departments of EndocrinologyClinical BiochemistryAalborg University Hospital, Sdr. Skovvej 15, 9000 Aalborg, DenmarkDepartment of Clinical EpidemiologyAarhus University Hospital, 8000 Aarhus, DenmarkDepartment of Clinical MedicineAalborg University, 9000 Aalborg, Denmark
| | - Peter Laurberg
- Departments of EndocrinologyClinical BiochemistryAalborg University Hospital, Sdr. Skovvej 15, 9000 Aalborg, DenmarkDepartment of Clinical EpidemiologyAarhus University Hospital, 8000 Aarhus, DenmarkDepartment of Clinical MedicineAalborg University, 9000 Aalborg, Denmark Departments of EndocrinologyClinical BiochemistryAalborg University Hospital, Sdr. Skovvej 15, 9000 Aalborg, DenmarkDepartment of Clinical EpidemiologyAarhus University Hospital, 8000 Aarhus, DenmarkDepartment of Clinical MedicineAalborg University, 9000 Aalborg, Denmark
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Congenital Bands with Intestinal Malrotation after Propylthiouracil Exposure in Early Pregnancy. Case Rep Endocrinol 2015; 2015:789762. [PMID: 26664769 PMCID: PMC4667016 DOI: 10.1155/2015/789762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2015] [Accepted: 11/11/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Exposure to propylthiouracil in early pregnancy may be associated with an increased risk of birth defects. But the spectrum of associated congenital anomalies is not yet well defined. While preliminary reports suggest that most cases of propylthiouracil-associated birth defects are restricted to the preauricular and urinary systems, careful consideration should be given to other possible manifestations of teratogenicity. We propose that congenital bands may potentially represent a rare yet serious complication of propylthiouracil exposure in early pregnancy, possibly arising from an early mesenteric developmental anomaly. We report a case of a 17-day-old girl that presented with acute small bowel obstruction associated with intestinal malrotation arising from several anomalous congenital bands. Her mother was treated for Graves' disease during pregnancy with first trimester exposure to propylthiouracil but remained clinically and biochemically euthyroid at conception and throughout the duration of pregnancy. This case suggests that the use of propylthiouracil in early pregnancy may be associated with congenital bands and intestinal malrotation. More reports are needed to further support this association.
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Biondi B, Bartalena L, Cooper DS, Hegedüs L, Laurberg P, Kahaly GJ. The 2015 European Thyroid Association Guidelines on Diagnosis and Treatment of Endogenous Subclinical Hyperthyroidism. Eur Thyroid J 2015; 4:149-63. [PMID: 26558232 PMCID: PMC4637513 DOI: 10.1159/000438750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 141] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2014] [Revised: 07/16/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Endogenous subclinical hyperthyroidism (SHyper) is caused by Graves' disease, autonomously functioning thyroid nodules and multinodular goitre. Its diagnosis is based on a persistently subnormal serum thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) level with free thyroid hormone levels within their respective reference intervals. In 2014 the European Thyroid Association Executive Committee, given the controversies regarding the treatment of Endo SHyper, formed a task force to develop clinical practice guidelines based on the principles of evidence-based medicine. The task force recognized that recent meta-analyses, including those based on large prospective cohort studies, indicate that SHyper is associated with increased risk of coronary heart disease mortality, incident atrial fibrillation, heart failure, fractures and excess mortality in patients with serum TSH levels <0.1 mIU/l (grade 2 SHyper). Therefore, despite the absence of randomized prospective trials, there is evidence that treatment is indicated in patients older than 65 years with grade 2 SHyper to potentially avoid these serious cardiovascular events, fractures and the risk of progression to overt hyperthyroidism. Treatment could be considered in patients older than 65 years with TSH levels 0.1-0.39 mIU/l (grade 1 SHyper) because of their increased risk of atrial fibrillation, and might also be reasonable in younger (<65 years) symptomatic patients with grade 2 SHyper because of the risk of progression, especially in the presence of symptoms and/or underlying risk factors or co-morbidity. Finally, the task force concluded that there are no data to support treating SHyper in younger asymptomatic patients with grade 1 SHyper. These patients should be followed without treatment due to the low risk of progression to overt hyperthyroidism and the weaker evidence for adverse health outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernadette Biondi
- Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
- *Bernadette Biondi, Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery, University of Naples Federico II, Via S. Pansini 5, IT-80131 Naples (Italy), E-Mail
| | - Luigi Bartalena
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Insubria, Endocrine Unit, Ospedale di Circolo, Varese, Italy
| | - David S. Cooper
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Md., USA
| | - Laszlo Hegedüs
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Odense University Hospital, Odense, Denmark
| | - Peter Laurberg
- Department of Endocrinology, Aalborg University Hospital, Aalborg, Denmark
| | - George J. Kahaly
- Department of Medicine I, Johannes Gutenberg University Medical Center, Mainz, Germany
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High Body Mass Index Is an Indicator of Maternal Hypothyroidism, Hypothyroxinemia, and Thyroid-Peroxidase Antibody Positivity during Early Pregnancy. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2015; 2015:351831. [PMID: 26273610 PMCID: PMC4530209 DOI: 10.1155/2015/351831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2015] [Revised: 06/02/2015] [Accepted: 07/09/2015] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Background. Maternal thyroid dysfunction in early pregnancy may increase the risk of adverse pregnancy complications and neurocognitive deficiencies in the developing fetus. Currently, some researchers demonstrated that body mass index (BMI) is associated with thyroid function in nonpregnant population. Hence, the American Thyroid Association recommended screening thyroid function in obese pregnant women; however, the evidence for this is weak. For this purpose, our study investigated the relationship between high BMI and thyroid functions during early pregnancy in Liaoning province, an iodine-sufficient region of China. Methods. Serum thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), free thyroxine (FT4), thyroid-peroxidase antibody (TPOAb), thyroglobulin antibody (TgAb) concentration, urinary iodine concentration (UIC), and BMI were determined in 6303 pregnant women. Results. BMI ≥ 25 kg/m2 may act as an indicator of hypothyroxinemia and TPOAb positivity and BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2 was associated with increases in the odds of hypothyroidism, hypothyroxinemia, and TPOAb positivity. The prevalence of isolated hypothyroxinemia increased among pregnant women with BMI > 24 kg/m2. Conclusions. High BMI during early pregnancy may be an indicator of maternal thyroid dysfunction; for Asian women whose BMI > 24 kg/m2 and who are within 8 weeks of pregnancy, thyroid functions should be assessed especially.
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138
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Li X, Liu GY, Ma JL, Zhou L. Risk of congenital anomalies associated with antithyroid treatment during pregnancy: a meta-analysis. Clinics (Sao Paulo) 2015; 70:453-9. [PMID: 26106966 PMCID: PMC4462563 DOI: 10.6061/clinics/2015(06)12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2014] [Accepted: 03/10/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
To evaluate the association of either propylthiouracil or methimazole treatment for hyperthyroidism during pregnancy with congenital malformations, relevant studies were identified by searching Medline, PubMed, the Cochrane Library and EMBASE. We intended to include randomized controlled trials, but no such trials were identified. Thus, we included cohort studies and case-control studies in this meta-analysis. A total of 7 studies were included in the meta-analyses. The results revealed an increased risk of birth defects among the group of pregnant women with hyperthyroidism treated with methimazole compared with the control group (odds ratio 1.76, 95% confidence interval 1.47-2.10) or the non-exposed group (odds ratio 1.71, 95% confidence interval 1.39-2.10). A maternal shift between methimazole and propylthiouracil was associated with an increased odds ratio of birth defects (odds ratio 1.88, 95% confidence interval 1.27-2.77). An equal risk of birth defects was observed between the group of pregnant women with hyperthyroidism treated with propylthiouracil and the non-exposed group (odds ratio 1.18, 95% confidence interval 0.97-1.42). There was only a slight trend towards an increased risk of congenital malformations in infants whose mothers were treated with propylthiouracil compared with in infants whose mothers were healthy controls (odds ratio 1.29, 95% confidence interval 1.07-1.55). The children of women receiving methimazole treatment showed an increased risk of adverse fetal outcomes relative to those of mothers receiving propylthiouracil treatment. We found that propylthiouracil was a safer choice for treating pregnant women with hyperthyroidism according to the risk of birth defects but that a shift between methimazole and propylthiouracil failed to provide protection against birth defects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiang Li
- *Xiang LiCorresponding author: E-mail:
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139
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Pearce EN. Thyroid disorders during pregnancy and postpartum. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol 2015; 29:700-6. [PMID: 26028555 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpobgyn.2015.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2015] [Accepted: 04/13/2015] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
An awareness of the gestational changes to thyroid physiology and the impact of uncontrolled thyroid disease on pregnancy and infant outcome is essential for the successful management of hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism. This review summarizes strategies for the management of thyroid disease in pregnancy and post partum, and it highlights areas where there is still a lack of consensus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth N Pearce
- Section of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Nutrition, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA.
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140
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Andersen SL, Olsen J, Wu CS, Laurberg P. Severity of birth defects after propylthiouracil exposure in early pregnancy. Thyroid 2014; 24:1533-40. [PMID: 24963758 PMCID: PMC4195247 DOI: 10.1089/thy.2014.0150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Propylthiouracil (PTU) used in the treatment of maternal hyperthyroidism in early pregnancy may be associated with a higher prevalence of birth defects in the face and neck region and in the urinary system but the severity of these complications remains to be elucidated. METHODS Review of hospital-registered cases of birth defects in the face and neck region and in the urinary system after PTU exposure in early pregnancy. We obtained information on maternal redeemed prescription of PTU and child diagnosis of birth defect from nationwide registers for all children born in Denmark between 1996 and 2008 (n=817,093). The children were followed until December 31, 2010 (median age, 8.3 years) and the Cox proportional hazards model was used to estimate adjusted hazard ratio (HR) with 95% confidence interval (CI) for having a birth defect after PTU exposure versus nonexposed children (n=811,730). RESULTS Fourteen cases of birth defects were identified in the face and neck region and in the urinary system after PTU exposure in early pregnancy; 11 children were exposed to PTU only (n=564), whereas 3 children were born to mothers who switched from methimazole (MMI)/carbimazole (CMZ) to PTU in early pregnancy (n=159). Among children exposed to PTU only, the adjusted HR for having a birth defect in the face and neck region was 4.92 (95% CI 2.04-11.86) and in the urinary system 2.73 (1.22-6.07). Looking into details of the 14 cases, 7 children were diagnosed with a birth defect in the face and neck region (preauricular and branchial sinus/fistula/cyst) and 7 children had a birth defect in the urinary system (single cyst of kidney and hydronephrosis). Surgical treatment was registered in 6 of the cases with a birth defect in the face and neck region and 3 of the cases with a birth defect in the urinary system. Two of the children with a birth defect in the urinary system also had other birth defects (genital organs). CONCLUSIONS We report details on possible PTU-associated birth defects. They tend to be less severe than the defects observed after MMI/CMZ exposure. Yet, the majority of affected children had to undergo surgery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stine Linding Andersen
- Department of Endocrinology, Aalborg University Hospital, Aalborg, Denmark
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark
| | - Jørn Olsen
- Section for Epidemiology, Department of Public Health, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Chun Sen Wu
- Section for Epidemiology, Department of Public Health, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Peter Laurberg
- Department of Endocrinology, Aalborg University Hospital, Aalborg, Denmark
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark
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Abeillon-du Payrat J, Chikh K, Bossard N, Bretones P, Gaucherand P, Claris O, Charrié A, Raverot V, Orgiazzi J, Borson-Chazot F, Bournaud C. Predictive value of maternal second-generation thyroid-binding inhibitory immunoglobulin assay for neonatal autoimmune hyperthyroidism. Eur J Endocrinol 2014; 171:451-60. [PMID: 25214232 DOI: 10.1530/eje-14-0254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
CONTEXT Hyperthyroidism occurs in 1% of neonates born to mothers with active or past Graves' disease (GD). Current guidelines for the management of GD during pregnancy were based on studies conducted with first-generation thyroid-binding inhibitory immunoglobulin (TBII) assays. OBJECTIVE This retrospective study was conducted in order to specify the second-generation TBII threshold predictive of fetal and neonatal hyperthyroidism, and to identify other factors that may be helpful in predicting neonatal hyperthyroidism. METHODS We included 47 neonates born in the Lyon area to 42 mothers harboring measurable levels of TBII during pregnancy. TBII measurements were carried out in all mothers; bioassays were carried out in 20 cases. RESULTS Nine neonates were born with hyperthyroidism, including five with severe hyperthyroidism requiring treatment. Three neonates were born with hypothyroidism. All hyperthyroid neonates were born to mothers with TBII levels >5 IU/l in the second trimester (sensitivity, 100% and specificity, 43%). No mother with TSH receptor-stimulating antibodies (TSAb measured by bioassay) below 400% gave birth to a hyperthyroid neonate. Among mothers of hyperthyroid neonates, who required antithyroid drugs during pregnancy, none could stop treatment before delivery. Analysis of TBII evolution showed six unexpected cases of increasing TBII values during pregnancy. CONCLUSION Maternal TBII value over 5 IU/l indicates a risk of neonatal hyperthyroidism. Among these mothers, a TSAb measurement contributes to identify more specifically those who require a close fetal thyroid ultrasound follow-up. These results should be confirmed in a larger series.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliette Abeillon-du Payrat
- Hospices Civils de LyonLyon, FranceFédération d'EndocrinologieService d'Endocrinologie PédiatriqueService de Médecine NucléaireService de Gynécologie-ObstétriqueService de NéonatalogieService de BiochimieGroupement Hospitalier Est, F-69003 Lyon, FranceService de BiochimieService d'EndocrinologieCentre Hospitalier Lyon Sud, 69310 Lyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine Lyon-EstUniversité Lyon 1, Lyon, FranceFaculté de PharmacieLyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine et de Maïeutique Lyon Sud - Charles MérieuxLyon, FranceCARMEN INSERM U1060Lyon, FranceINSERM U1052Lyon, FranceService de Biostatistiques162 Avenue Lacassagne, 69003 Lyon, France Hospices Civils de LyonLyon, FranceFédération d'EndocrinologieService d'Endocrinologie PédiatriqueService de Médecine NucléaireService de Gynécologie-ObstétriqueService de NéonatalogieService de BiochimieGroupement Hospitalier Est, F-69003 Lyon, FranceService de BiochimieService d'EndocrinologieCentre Hospitalier Lyon Sud, 69310 Lyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine Lyon-EstUniversité Lyon 1, Lyon, FranceFaculté de PharmacieLyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine et de Maïeutique Lyon Sud - Charles MérieuxLyon, FranceCARMEN INSERM U1060Lyon, FranceINSERM U1052Lyon, FranceService de Biostatistiques162 Avenue Lacassagne, 69003 Lyon, France Hospices Civils de LyonLyon, FranceFédération d'EndocrinologieService d'Endocrinologie PédiatriqueService de Médecine NucléaireService de Gynécologie-ObstétriqueService de NéonatalogieService de BiochimieGroupement Hospitalier Est, F-69003 Lyon, FranceService de BiochimieService d'EndocrinologieCentre Hospitalier Lyon Sud, 69310 Lyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine Lyon-EstUniversité Lyon 1, Lyon, FranceFaculté de PharmacieLyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine et de Maïeutique Lyon Sud - Charles MérieuxLyon, FranceCARMEN INSERM U1060Lyon, FranceINSERM U1052Lyon, FranceService de Biostatistiques162 Avenue Lacassagne, 69003 Lyon, France
| | - Karim Chikh
- Hospices Civils de LyonLyon, FranceFédération d'EndocrinologieService d'Endocrinologie PédiatriqueService de Médecine NucléaireService de Gynécologie-ObstétriqueService de NéonatalogieService de BiochimieGroupement Hospitalier Est, F-69003 Lyon, FranceService de BiochimieService d'EndocrinologieCentre Hospitalier Lyon Sud, 69310 Lyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine Lyon-EstUniversité Lyon 1, Lyon, FranceFaculté de PharmacieLyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine et de Maïeutique Lyon Sud - Charles MérieuxLyon, FranceCARMEN INSERM U1060Lyon, FranceINSERM U1052Lyon, FranceService de Biostatistiques162 Avenue Lacassagne, 69003 Lyon, France Hospices Civils de LyonLyon, FranceFédération d'EndocrinologieService d'Endocrinologie PédiatriqueService de Médecine NucléaireService de Gynécologie-ObstétriqueService de NéonatalogieService de BiochimieGroupement Hospitalier Est, F-69003 Lyon, FranceService de BiochimieService d'EndocrinologieCentre Hospitalier Lyon Sud, 69310 Lyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine Lyon-EstUniversité Lyon 1, Lyon, FranceFaculté de PharmacieLyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine et de Maïeutique Lyon Sud - Charles MérieuxLyon, FranceCARMEN INSERM U1060Lyon, FranceINSERM U1052Lyon, FranceService de Biostatistiques162 Avenue Lacassagne, 69003 Lyon, France Hospices Civils de LyonLyon, FranceFédération d'EndocrinologieService d'Endocrinologie PédiatriqueService de Médecine NucléaireService de Gynécologie-ObstétriqueService de NéonatalogieService de BiochimieGroupement Hospitalier Est, F-69003 Lyon, FranceService de BiochimieService d'EndocrinologieCentre Hospitalier Lyon Sud, 69310 Lyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine Lyon-EstUniversité Lyon 1, Lyon, FranceFaculté de PharmacieLyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine et de Maïeutique Lyon Sud - Charles MérieuxLyon, FranceCARMEN INSERM U1060Lyon, FranceINSERM U1052Lyon, FranceService de Biostatistiques162 Avenue Lacassagne, 69003 Lyon, France
| | - Nadine Bossard
- Hospices Civils de LyonLyon, FranceFédération d'EndocrinologieService d'Endocrinologie PédiatriqueService de Médecine NucléaireService de Gynécologie-ObstétriqueService de NéonatalogieService de BiochimieGroupement Hospitalier Est, F-69003 Lyon, FranceService de BiochimieService d'EndocrinologieCentre Hospitalier Lyon Sud, 69310 Lyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine Lyon-EstUniversité Lyon 1, Lyon, FranceFaculté de PharmacieLyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine et de Maïeutique Lyon Sud - Charles MérieuxLyon, FranceCARMEN INSERM U1060Lyon, FranceINSERM U1052Lyon, FranceService de Biostatistiques162 Avenue Lacassagne, 69003 Lyon, France Hospices Civils de LyonLyon, FranceFédération d'EndocrinologieService d'Endocrinologie PédiatriqueService de Médecine NucléaireService de Gynécologie-ObstétriqueService de NéonatalogieService de BiochimieGroupement Hospitalier Est, F-69003 Lyon, FranceService de BiochimieService d'EndocrinologieCentre Hospitalier Lyon Sud, 69310 Lyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine Lyon-EstUniversité Lyon 1, Lyon, FranceFaculté de PharmacieLyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine et de Maïeutique Lyon Sud - Charles MérieuxLyon, FranceCARMEN INSERM U1060Lyon, FranceINSERM U1052Lyon, FranceService de Biostatistiques162 Avenue Lacassagne, 69003 Lyon, France
| | - Patricia Bretones
- Hospices Civils de LyonLyon, FranceFédération d'EndocrinologieService d'Endocrinologie PédiatriqueService de Médecine NucléaireService de Gynécologie-ObstétriqueService de NéonatalogieService de BiochimieGroupement Hospitalier Est, F-69003 Lyon, FranceService de BiochimieService d'EndocrinologieCentre Hospitalier Lyon Sud, 69310 Lyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine Lyon-EstUniversité Lyon 1, Lyon, FranceFaculté de PharmacieLyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine et de Maïeutique Lyon Sud - Charles MérieuxLyon, FranceCARMEN INSERM U1060Lyon, FranceINSERM U1052Lyon, FranceService de Biostatistiques162 Avenue Lacassagne, 69003 Lyon, France Hospices Civils de LyonLyon, FranceFédération d'EndocrinologieService d'Endocrinologie PédiatriqueService de Médecine NucléaireService de Gynécologie-ObstétriqueService de NéonatalogieService de BiochimieGroupement Hospitalier Est, F-69003 Lyon, FranceService de BiochimieService d'EndocrinologieCentre Hospitalier Lyon Sud, 69310 Lyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine Lyon-EstUniversité Lyon 1, Lyon, FranceFaculté de PharmacieLyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine et de Maïeutique Lyon Sud - Charles MérieuxLyon, FranceCARMEN INSERM U1060Lyon, FranceINSERM U1052Lyon, FranceService de Biostatistiques162 Avenue Lacassagne, 69003 Lyon, France
| | - Pascal Gaucherand
- Hospices Civils de LyonLyon, FranceFédération d'EndocrinologieService d'Endocrinologie PédiatriqueService de Médecine NucléaireService de Gynécologie-ObstétriqueService de NéonatalogieService de BiochimieGroupement Hospitalier Est, F-69003 Lyon, FranceService de BiochimieService d'EndocrinologieCentre Hospitalier Lyon Sud, 69310 Lyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine Lyon-EstUniversité Lyon 1, Lyon, FranceFaculté de PharmacieLyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine et de Maïeutique Lyon Sud - Charles MérieuxLyon, FranceCARMEN INSERM U1060Lyon, FranceINSERM U1052Lyon, FranceService de Biostatistiques162 Avenue Lacassagne, 69003 Lyon, France Hospices Civils de LyonLyon, FranceFédération d'EndocrinologieService d'Endocrinologie PédiatriqueService de Médecine NucléaireService de Gynécologie-ObstétriqueService de NéonatalogieService de BiochimieGroupement Hospitalier Est, F-69003 Lyon, FranceService de BiochimieService d'EndocrinologieCentre Hospitalier Lyon Sud, 69310 Lyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine Lyon-EstUniversité Lyon 1, Lyon, FranceFaculté de PharmacieLyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine et de Maïeutique Lyon Sud - Charles MérieuxLyon, FranceCARMEN INSERM U1060Lyon, FranceINSERM U1052Lyon, FranceService de Biostatistiques162 Avenue Lacassagne, 69003 Lyon, France Hospices Civils de LyonLyon, FranceFédération d'EndocrinologieService d'Endocrinologie PédiatriqueService de Médecine NucléaireService de Gynécologie-ObstétriqueService de NéonatalogieService de BiochimieGroupement Hospitalier Est, F-69003 Lyon, FranceService de BiochimieService d'EndocrinologieCentre Hospitalier Lyon Sud, 69310 Lyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine Lyon-EstUniversité Lyon 1, Lyon, FranceFaculté de PharmacieLyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine et de Maïeutique Lyon Sud - Charles MérieuxLyon, FranceCARMEN INSERM U1060Lyon, FranceINSERM U1052Lyon, FranceService de Biostatistiques162 Avenue Lacassagne, 69003 Lyon, France
| | - Olivier Claris
- Hospices Civils de LyonLyon, FranceFédération d'EndocrinologieService d'Endocrinologie PédiatriqueService de Médecine NucléaireService de Gynécologie-ObstétriqueService de NéonatalogieService de BiochimieGroupement Hospitalier Est, F-69003 Lyon, FranceService de BiochimieService d'EndocrinologieCentre Hospitalier Lyon Sud, 69310 Lyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine Lyon-EstUniversité Lyon 1, Lyon, FranceFaculté de PharmacieLyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine et de Maïeutique Lyon Sud - Charles MérieuxLyon, FranceCARMEN INSERM U1060Lyon, FranceINSERM U1052Lyon, FranceService de Biostatistiques162 Avenue Lacassagne, 69003 Lyon, France Hospices Civils de LyonLyon, FranceFédération d'EndocrinologieService d'Endocrinologie PédiatriqueService de Médecine NucléaireService de Gynécologie-ObstétriqueService de NéonatalogieService de BiochimieGroupement Hospitalier Est, F-69003 Lyon, FranceService de BiochimieService d'EndocrinologieCentre Hospitalier Lyon Sud, 69310 Lyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine Lyon-EstUniversité Lyon 1, Lyon, FranceFaculté de PharmacieLyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine et de Maïeutique Lyon Sud - Charles MérieuxLyon, FranceCARMEN INSERM U1060Lyon, FranceINSERM U1052Lyon, FranceService de Biostatistiques162 Avenue Lacassagne, 69003 Lyon, France Hospices Civils de LyonLyon, FranceFédération d'EndocrinologieService d'Endocrinologie PédiatriqueService de Médecine NucléaireService de Gynécologie-ObstétriqueService de NéonatalogieService de BiochimieGroupement Hospitalier Est, F-69003 Lyon, FranceService de BiochimieService d'EndocrinologieCentre Hospitalier Lyon Sud, 69310 Lyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine Lyon-EstUniversité Lyon 1, Lyon, FranceFaculté de PharmacieLyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine et de Maïeutique Lyon Sud - Charles MérieuxLyon, FranceCARMEN INSERM U1060Lyon, FranceINSERM U1052Lyon, FranceService de Biostatistiques162 Avenue Lacassagne, 69003 Lyon, France
| | - Anne Charrié
- Hospices Civils de LyonLyon, FranceFédération d'EndocrinologieService d'Endocrinologie PédiatriqueService de Médecine NucléaireService de Gynécologie-ObstétriqueService de NéonatalogieService de BiochimieGroupement Hospitalier Est, F-69003 Lyon, FranceService de BiochimieService d'EndocrinologieCentre Hospitalier Lyon Sud, 69310 Lyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine Lyon-EstUniversité Lyon 1, Lyon, FranceFaculté de PharmacieLyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine et de Maïeutique Lyon Sud - Charles MérieuxLyon, FranceCARMEN INSERM U1060Lyon, FranceINSERM U1052Lyon, FranceService de Biostatistiques162 Avenue Lacassagne, 69003 Lyon, France Hospices Civils de LyonLyon, FranceFédération d'EndocrinologieService d'Endocrinologie PédiatriqueService de Médecine NucléaireService de Gynécologie-ObstétriqueService de NéonatalogieService de BiochimieGroupement Hospitalier Est, F-69003 Lyon, FranceService de BiochimieService d'EndocrinologieCentre Hospitalier Lyon Sud, 69310 Lyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine Lyon-EstUniversité Lyon 1, Lyon, FranceFaculté de PharmacieLyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine et de Maïeutique Lyon Sud - Charles MérieuxLyon, FranceCARMEN INSERM U1060Lyon, FranceINSERM U1052Lyon, FranceService de Biostatistiques162 Avenue Lacassagne, 69003 Lyon, France Hospices Civils de LyonLyon, FranceFédération d'EndocrinologieService d'Endocrinologie PédiatriqueService de Médecine NucléaireService de Gynécologie-ObstétriqueService de NéonatalogieService de BiochimieGroupement Hospitalier Est, F-69003 Lyon, FranceService de BiochimieService d'EndocrinologieCentre Hospitalier Lyon Sud, 69310 Lyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine Lyon-EstUniversité Lyon 1, Lyon, FranceFaculté de PharmacieLyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine et de Maïeutique Lyon Sud - Charles MérieuxLyon, FranceCARMEN INSERM U1060Lyon, FranceINSERM U1052Lyon, FranceService de Biostatistiques162 Avenue Lacassagne, 69003 Lyon, France
| | - Véronique Raverot
- Hospices Civils de LyonLyon, FranceFédération d'EndocrinologieService d'Endocrinologie PédiatriqueService de Médecine NucléaireService de Gynécologie-ObstétriqueService de NéonatalogieService de BiochimieGroupement Hospitalier Est, F-69003 Lyon, FranceService de BiochimieService d'EndocrinologieCentre Hospitalier Lyon Sud, 69310 Lyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine Lyon-EstUniversité Lyon 1, Lyon, FranceFaculté de PharmacieLyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine et de Maïeutique Lyon Sud - Charles MérieuxLyon, FranceCARMEN INSERM U1060Lyon, FranceINSERM U1052Lyon, FranceService de Biostatistiques162 Avenue Lacassagne, 69003 Lyon, France Hospices Civils de LyonLyon, FranceFédération d'EndocrinologieService d'Endocrinologie PédiatriqueService de Médecine NucléaireService de Gynécologie-ObstétriqueService de NéonatalogieService de BiochimieGroupement Hospitalier Est, F-69003 Lyon, FranceService de BiochimieService d'EndocrinologieCentre Hospitalier Lyon Sud, 69310 Lyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine Lyon-EstUniversité Lyon 1, Lyon, FranceFaculté de PharmacieLyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine et de Maïeutique Lyon Sud - Charles MérieuxLyon, FranceCARMEN INSERM U1060Lyon, FranceINSERM U1052Lyon, FranceService de Biostatistiques162 Avenue Lacassagne, 69003 Lyon, France
| | - Jacques Orgiazzi
- Hospices Civils de LyonLyon, FranceFédération d'EndocrinologieService d'Endocrinologie PédiatriqueService de Médecine NucléaireService de Gynécologie-ObstétriqueService de NéonatalogieService de BiochimieGroupement Hospitalier Est, F-69003 Lyon, FranceService de BiochimieService d'EndocrinologieCentre Hospitalier Lyon Sud, 69310 Lyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine Lyon-EstUniversité Lyon 1, Lyon, FranceFaculté de PharmacieLyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine et de Maïeutique Lyon Sud - Charles MérieuxLyon, FranceCARMEN INSERM U1060Lyon, FranceINSERM U1052Lyon, FranceService de Biostatistiques162 Avenue Lacassagne, 69003 Lyon, France Hospices Civils de LyonLyon, FranceFédération d'EndocrinologieService d'Endocrinologie PédiatriqueService de Médecine NucléaireService de Gynécologie-ObstétriqueService de NéonatalogieService de BiochimieGroupement Hospitalier Est, F-69003 Lyon, FranceService de BiochimieService d'EndocrinologieCentre Hospitalier Lyon Sud, 69310 Lyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine Lyon-EstUniversité Lyon 1, Lyon, FranceFaculté de PharmacieLyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine et de Maïeutique Lyon Sud - Charles MérieuxLyon, FranceCARMEN INSERM U1060Lyon, FranceINSERM U1052Lyon, FranceService de Biostatistiques162 Avenue Lacassagne, 69003 Lyon, France Hospices Civils de LyonLyon, FranceFédération d'EndocrinologieService d'Endocrinologie PédiatriqueService de Médecine NucléaireService de Gynécologie-ObstétriqueService de NéonatalogieService de BiochimieGroupement Hospitalier Est, F-69003 Lyon, FranceService de BiochimieService d'EndocrinologieCentre Hospitalier Lyon Sud, 69310 Lyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine Lyon-EstUniversité Lyon 1, Lyon, FranceFaculté de PharmacieLyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine et de Maïeutique Lyon Sud - Charles MérieuxLyon, FranceCARMEN INSERM U1060Lyon, FranceINSERM U1052Lyon, FranceService de Biostatistiques162 Avenue Lacassagne, 69003 Lyon, France
| | - Françoise Borson-Chazot
- Hospices Civils de LyonLyon, FranceFédération d'EndocrinologieService d'Endocrinologie PédiatriqueService de Médecine NucléaireService de Gynécologie-ObstétriqueService de NéonatalogieService de BiochimieGroupement Hospitalier Est, F-69003 Lyon, FranceService de BiochimieService d'EndocrinologieCentre Hospitalier Lyon Sud, 69310 Lyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine Lyon-EstUniversité Lyon 1, Lyon, FranceFaculté de PharmacieLyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine et de Maïeutique Lyon Sud - Charles MérieuxLyon, FranceCARMEN INSERM U1060Lyon, FranceINSERM U1052Lyon, FranceService de Biostatistiques162 Avenue Lacassagne, 69003 Lyon, France Hospices Civils de LyonLyon, FranceFédération d'EndocrinologieService d'Endocrinologie PédiatriqueService de Médecine NucléaireService de Gynécologie-ObstétriqueService de NéonatalogieService de BiochimieGroupement Hospitalier Est, F-69003 Lyon, FranceService de BiochimieService d'EndocrinologieCentre Hospitalier Lyon Sud, 69310 Lyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine Lyon-EstUniversité Lyon 1, Lyon, FranceFaculté de PharmacieLyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine et de Maïeutique Lyon Sud - Charles MérieuxLyon, FranceCARMEN INSERM U1060Lyon, FranceINSERM U1052Lyon, FranceService de Biostatistiques162 Avenue Lacassagne, 69003 Lyon, France Hospices Civils de LyonLyon, FranceFédération d'EndocrinologieService d'Endocrinologie PédiatriqueService de Médecine NucléaireService de Gynécologie-ObstétriqueService de NéonatalogieService de BiochimieGroupement Hospitalier Est, F-69003 Lyon, FranceService de BiochimieService d'EndocrinologieCentre Hospitalier Lyon Sud, 69310 Lyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine Lyon-EstUniversité Lyon 1, Lyon, FranceFaculté de PharmacieLyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine et de Maïeutique Lyon Sud - Charles MérieuxLyon, FranceCARMEN INSERM U1060Lyon, FranceINSERM U1052Lyon, FranceService de Biostatistiques162 Avenue Lacassagne, 69003 Lyon, France Hospices Civils de LyonLyon, FranceFédération d'Endocr
| | - Claire Bournaud
- Hospices Civils de LyonLyon, FranceFédération d'EndocrinologieService d'Endocrinologie PédiatriqueService de Médecine NucléaireService de Gynécologie-ObstétriqueService de NéonatalogieService de BiochimieGroupement Hospitalier Est, F-69003 Lyon, FranceService de BiochimieService d'EndocrinologieCentre Hospitalier Lyon Sud, 69310 Lyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine Lyon-EstUniversité Lyon 1, Lyon, FranceFaculté de PharmacieLyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine et de Maïeutique Lyon Sud - Charles MérieuxLyon, FranceCARMEN INSERM U1060Lyon, FranceINSERM U1052Lyon, FranceService de Biostatistiques162 Avenue Lacassagne, 69003 Lyon, France Hospices Civils de LyonLyon, FranceFédération d'EndocrinologieService d'Endocrinologie PédiatriqueService de Médecine NucléaireService de Gynécologie-ObstétriqueService de NéonatalogieService de BiochimieGroupement Hospitalier Est, F-69003 Lyon, FranceService de BiochimieService d'EndocrinologieCentre Hospitalier Lyon Sud, 69310 Lyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine Lyon-EstUniversité Lyon 1, Lyon, FranceFaculté de PharmacieLyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine et de Maïeutique Lyon Sud - Charles MérieuxLyon, FranceCARMEN INSERM U1060Lyon, FranceINSERM U1052Lyon, FranceService de Biostatistiques162 Avenue Lacassagne, 69003 Lyon, France Hospices Civils de LyonLyon, FranceFédération d'EndocrinologieService d'Endocrinologie PédiatriqueService de Médecine NucléaireService de Gynécologie-ObstétriqueService de NéonatalogieService de BiochimieGroupement Hospitalier Est, F-69003 Lyon, FranceService de BiochimieService d'EndocrinologieCentre Hospitalier Lyon Sud, 69310 Lyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine Lyon-EstUniversité Lyon 1, Lyon, FranceFaculté de PharmacieLyon, FranceFaculté de Médecine et de Maïeutique Lyon Sud - Charles MérieuxLyon, FranceCARMEN INSERM U1060Lyon, FranceINSERM U1052Lyon, FranceService de Biostatistiques162 Avenue Lacassagne, 69003 Lyon, France Hospices Civils de LyonLyon, FranceFédération d'Endocr
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Andersen SL, Olsen J, Wu CS, Laurberg P. Spontaneous abortion, stillbirth and hyperthyroidism: a danish population-based study. Eur Thyroid J 2014; 3:164-72. [PMID: 25538898 PMCID: PMC4224233 DOI: 10.1159/000365101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2014] [Revised: 06/05/2014] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Pregnancy loss in women suffering from hyperthyroidism has been described in case reports, but the risk of pregnancy loss caused by maternal hyperthyroidism in a population is unknown. We aimed to evaluate the association between maternal hyperthyroidism and pregnancy loss in a population-based cohort study. STUDY DESIGN All pregnancies in Denmark from 1997 to 2008 leading to hospital visits (n = 1,062,862) were identified in nationwide registers together with information on maternal hyperthyroidism for up to 2 years after the pregnancy [hospital diagnosis/prescription of antithyroid drug (ATD)]. The Cox proportional hazards model was used to estimate adjusted hazard ratio (aHR) with 95% confidence interval (CI) for spontaneous abortion (gestational age <22 weeks) and stillbirth (≥22 weeks), reference: no maternal thyroid dysfunction. RESULTS When maternal hyperthyroidism was diagnosed before/during the pregnancy (n = 5,229), spontaneous abortion occurred more often both in women treated before the pregnancy alone [aHR 1.28 (95% CI 1.18-1.40)] and in women treated with ATD in early pregnancy [1.18 (1.07-1.31)]. When maternal hyperthyroidism was diagnosed and treated for the first time in the 2-year period after the pregnancy (n = 2,361), there was a high risk that the pregnancy under study had terminated with a stillbirth [2.12 (1.30-3.47)]. CONCLUSIONS Both early (spontaneous abortion) and late (stillbirth) pregnancy loss were more common in women suffering from hyperthyroidism. Inadequately treated hyperthyroidism in early pregnancy may have been involved in spontaneous abortion, and undetected high maternal thyroid hormone levels present in late pregnancy may have attributed to an increased risk of stillbirth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stine Linding Andersen
- Department of Endocrinology, Aalborg University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Jørn Olsen
- Section for Epidemiology, Department of Public Health, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Chun Sen Wu
- Section for Epidemiology, Department of Public Health, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Peter Laurberg
- Department of Endocrinology, Aalborg University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Aarhus, Denmark
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Jaiswal N, Melse-Boonstra A, Thomas T, Basavaraj C, Sharma SK, Srinivasan K, Zimmermann MB. High prevalence of maternal hypothyroidism despite adequate iodine status in Indian pregnant women in the first trimester. Thyroid 2014; 24:1419-29. [PMID: 24923842 DOI: 10.1089/thy.2014.0071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Iodine requirements are increased during pregnancy to maintain maternal and fetal euthyroidism. There have been recent improvements in iodized salt coverage in India, but whether iodized salt is sufficient to sustain iodine requirements during pregnancy remains uncertain. Our aims were to measure thyroid status in first trimester pregnant women in southern India and assess potential determinants of thyroid function, including iodine status, thyroid autoimmunity, dietary patterns, body weight, and anemia. METHODS This was a cross-sectional study among 334 pregnant women of ≤ 14 weeks' gestation, in Bangalore, India. We measured anthropometrics, urinary iodine concentration (UIC), maternal thyroid volume (by ultrasound), and thyroid function. We applied a thyrotropin (TSH) upper limit of 2.5 mIU/L to classify thyroid insufficiency. Using a questionnaire, we obtained sociodemographic and dietary data, obstetric history, and use of iodized salt and iodine supplements. RESULTS Among the women, the mean (standard deviation) gestational age was 10.3 (2.5) weeks, 67% were nulliparous, 21% were vegetarian, 19% were anemic, and 23% were overweight or obese. Iodized salt was used by 98% of women, and they were iodine sufficient: median UIC (range) was 184.2 μg/L (8.1-1152 μg/L) and all had a normal thyroid volume. However, 18% of the women had thyroid insufficiency: 3.7% had overt hypothyroidism (83% with positive TPO-Ab), 9.2% had subclinical hypothyroidism, and 5.2% had hypothyroxinemia. Women consuming vegetarian diets did not have significantly lower iodine intakes or higher risk of hypothyroidism than those consuming mixed diets, but overweight/obesity and anemia predicted thyroid insufficiency. CONCLUSION In this urban population of southern India, pregnant women have adequate iodine status in the first trimester. Despite this, many have thyroid insufficiency, and the prevalence of overt hypothyroidism is more than fivefold higher than reported in other iodine sufficient populations of pregnant women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nidhi Jaiswal
- 1 St. John's Research Institute, St. John's National Academy of Health Sciences , Bangalore, India
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Laurberg P, Andersen SL. Therapy of endocrine disease: antithyroid drug use in early pregnancy and birth defects: time windows of relative safety and high risk? Eur J Endocrinol 2014; 171:R13-20. [PMID: 24662319 DOI: 10.1530/eje-14-0135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Antithyroid drugs (ATDs) may have teratogenic effects when used in early pregnancy. OBJECTIVE To review the association between the time period of ATD exposure in early pregnancy and the development of birth defects. METHODS We identified publications on birth defects after early pregnancy exposure to the ATDs methimazole (MMI; and its prodrug carbimazole (CMZ)) and propylthiouracil (PTU). Cases of birth defects after ATD treatment had been initiated or terminated within the first 10 weeks of pregnancy were identified and studied in detail. RESULTS A total of 92 publications were read in detail. Two recent large controlled studies showed ATD-associated birth defects in 2-3% of exposed children, and MMI/CMZ-associated defects were often severe. Out of the total number of publications, 17 included cases of birth defects with early pregnancy stop/start of ATD treatment, and these cases suggested that the high risk was confined to gestational weeks 6-10, which is the major period of organogenesis. Thus, the cases reported suggest that the risk of birth defects could be minimized if pregnant women terminate ATD intake before gestational week 6. CONCLUSION Both MMI and PTU use in early pregnancy may lead to birth defects in 2-3% of the exposed children. MMI-associated defects are often severe. Proposals are given on how to minimize the risk of birth defects in fertile women treated for hyperthyroidism with ATDs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Laurberg
- Department of EndocrinologyAalborg University Hospital, DK-9000 Aalborg, DenmarkDepartment of Clinical MedicineAalborg University, Aalborg, DenmarkDepartment of EndocrinologyAalborg University Hospital, DK-9000 Aalborg, DenmarkDepartment of Clinical MedicineAalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark
| | - Stine Linding Andersen
- Department of EndocrinologyAalborg University Hospital, DK-9000 Aalborg, DenmarkDepartment of Clinical MedicineAalborg University, Aalborg, DenmarkDepartment of EndocrinologyAalborg University Hospital, DK-9000 Aalborg, DenmarkDepartment of Clinical MedicineAalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark
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