The chemistry of organic polysulfanes R-S(n)-R (n > 2)

Sulfur and Sulfur Compounds in Plant Defence

The multiplicity of chemical structures of sulfur containing compounds, influenced in part by the element's several oxidation states, directly results in diverse modes of action for sulfur-containing natural products synthesized as secondary metabolites in plants. Sulfur-containing natural products constitute a formidable wall of defence against a wide range of pathogens and pests. Steady progress in the development of new technologies have advanced research in this area, helping to uncover the role of such important plant defence molecules like endogenously-released elemental sulphur, but also deepening current understanding of other better-studied compounds like the glucosinolates. As studies continue in this area, it is becoming increasingly evident that sulfur and sulfur compounds play far more important roles in plant defence than perhaps previously suspected.

Thiol, disulfide, and trisulfide complexes of Ru porphyrins: potential models for iron-sulfur bonds in heme proteins

Thirty-two Ru(porp)L(2) complexes have been synthesized, where porp = the dianion of meso-tetramesitylporphyrin (TMP) or meso-tetrakis(4-methylphenyl)porphyrin (H(2)T-pMe-PP), and L = a thiol, a sulfide, a disulfide, or a trisulfide. Species studied were with RSH [R = Me, Et, (n)Pr, (i)Pr, (t)Bu, Bn (benzyl), and Ph], RSR (R = Me, Bn), RSSR (R = Me, Et, (n)Pr, Bn) and MeSS(t)Bu, and RSSSR (R = Me, Bn). All the species except two, which were the isolated Ru(T-pMe-PP)((t)BuSH)(2) and Ru(TMP)(MeSSMe)(2), were characterized in situ. The disulfide complex was characterized by X-ray analysis. (1)H NMR data for the coordinated thiols are the first reported within metalloporphyrin systems, and are especially informative because of the upfield shifts of the axial sulfur-containing ligands due to the porphyrin π-ring current effect, which is also present in the di- and trisulfide species. The disulfide in the solid state structure of Ru(TMP)(MeSSMe)(2) is η(1)(end-on) coordinated, the first example of such bonding in a nontethered, acyclic dialkyl disulfide; (1)H-(1)H EXSY NMR data in solution show that the species undergoes 1,2-S-metallotropic shifts. Stepwise formation of the bis(disulfide) complex from Ru(TMP)(MeCN)(2) in solution occurs with a cooperativity effect, resembling behavior of Fe(II)-porphyrin systems where crystal field effects dominate, but ligand trans-effects are more likely in the Ru system. The η(1)(end-on) coordination mode is also favored for the trisulfide ligand. Discussed also are the remarkable linear correlations that exist between the ring-current shielding shifts for the axial ligand C(1) protons of Ru(porp)(RS(x)R)(2) and x (the number of S atoms). The Introduction briefly reviews literature on Ru- and Fe porphyrins (including heme proteins) with sulfur-containing ligands or substrates, and relationships between our findings and this literature are discussed throughout the paper.

Pesticide processing potential in prairie pothole porewaters

Prairie pothole lakes (PPLs) are located within the extensively farmed Great Plains region of North America, and many are negatively impacted by nonpoint source pesticide pollution. To date, the environmental fate of pesticides in these lakes remains largely unknown. In this study, two PPLs in the Cottonwood Lake area of North Dakota were sampled, and transformations of four chloroacetanilide pesticides in sediment porewaters were examined. The reduced sulfur species in the porewaters, such as bisulfide (HS(-)) and polysulfides (S(n)(2-)), readily transformed the target pesticides into sulfur-substituted products. Although HS(-) and S(n)(2-) played a dominant role, other reactive constituents in PPL porewaters also contributed to the transformation. Results from this study revealed that abiotic reactions with reduced sulfur species could represent an important removal pathway for pesticides entering PPLs.

Reactions between methanethiol and biologically produced sulfur particles

Recently, new biotechnological processes have been developed to enable the sustainable removal of organic and inorganic sulfur compounds from liquid and gaseous hydrocarbon streams. In comparison to existing technologies (e.g., caustic scrubbing or iron based redox technologies) far less chemicals are consumed, while reusable elemental sulfur is formed as the main end-product. This research shows that in these processes a number of consecutive reactions occur between methanethiol (MT) from the hydrocarbon stream and the formed biosulfur particles, leading to the formation of (dimethyl) polysulfides. This is an important feature of this family of new bioprocesses as it improves the MT removal efficiency. The reaction kinetics depend on the MT and biosulfur concentration, temperature, and the nature of the biosulfur particles. The first reaction step involves a S8 ring-opening by nucleophilic attack of MT molecules to form CH3S9(-). This work shows that CH3S9(-) reacts to polysulfides (S3(2-), S4(2-), S5(2-)), dimethyl polysulfides [(CH3)2S2, (CH3)2S3], and dissociated H2S, while also some longer-chain dimethyl polysulfides [(CH3)2S4-7] are formed at μM levels. Control experiments using orthorhombic sulfur flower (S8) did not reveal these reactions.

Evidence for trisulfide bonds in a recombinant variant of a human IgG2 monoclonal antibody

The hinge region of human IgG2 contains four cysteine residues involved in disulfide linkages between the heavy chains, as well as the heavy and light chains. These linkages provide the fundamental framework of three distinct IgG2 disulfide isoforms recently described. Here, we detail another, disulfide-related post-translational modification in a recombinant variant of human IgG2. Heterogeneity associated with this antibody was separated into several fractions by anion-exchange chromatography (AEX), which is an important initial step that highlights the resolving power of surface charge-based HPLC techniques. Mass spectrometry of the intact antibody revealed weakly resolved discrete covalent additions of 25-35 Da in one of the two main AEX fractions. Digestion by endoproteinase Lys-C performed under nonreducing conditions, as well as tandem MS experiments, narrowed the modification to the peptide-containing disulfide-bridged hinge structure. High mass resolution and accuracy measurements of the peptide strongly suggested an addition of one or two S atoms. The modification could be eliminated by a mild reducing treatment of the intact antibody. Overall, these findings are consistent with the replacement of up to two disulfide bridges (S-S) with a like number of trisulfides (S-S-S) in the antibody hinge. The trisulfide modification is rather uncommon for proteins and its possible origins in the IgG2 variant are discussed.

Synthesis and redox-enzyme modulation by amino-1,4-dihydro-benzo[d][1,2]dithiine derivatives

A convenient method to prepare a series of benzodithiine derivatives was developed, via the synthesis of cyclic disulfide building blocks containing an amino-group linker. Some of the novel cyclic disulfide compounds are shown to modulate the activity of the redox-enzyme glutathione reductase.

Inhibition of microbiological sulfide oxidation by methanethiol and dimethyl polysulfides at natron-alkaline conditions

To avoid problems related to the discharge of sulfidic spent caustics, a biotechnological process is developed for the treatment of gases containing both hydrogen sulfide and methanethiol. The process operates at natron-alkaline conditions (>1 mol L⁻¹ of sodium- and potassium carbonates and a pH of 8.5–10) to enable the treatment of gases with a high partial CO₂ pressure. In the process, methanethiol reacts with biologically produced sulfur particles to form a complex mixture predominantly consisting of inorganic polysulfides, dimethyl disulfide (DMDS), and dimethyl trisulfide (DMTS). The effect of these organic sulfur compounds on the biological oxidation of sulfide to elemental sulfur was studied with natron-alkaliphilic bacteria belonging to the genus Thioalkalivibrio. Biological oxidation rates were reduced by 50% at 0.05 mM methanethiol, while for DMDS and DMTS, this was estimated to occur at 1.5 and 1.0 mM, respectively. The inhibiting effect of methanethiol on biological sulfide oxidation diminished due to its reaction with biologically produced sulfur particles. This reaction increases the feasibility of biotechnological treatment of gases containing both hydrogen sulfide and methanethiol at natron-alkaline conditions.

Effects of methanethiol on the biological oxidation of sulfide at natron-alkaline conditions

The effects of methanethiol (MT) on biological sulfide oxidation were studied in a continuously operated bioreactor, in which chemolithoautotrophic bacteria belonging to the genus Thioalkalivibrio convert hydrogen sulfide (H2S) at natron-alkaline conditions. Previous bioreactor experiments have shown that always a fraction of the H2S is oxidized to sulfate and thiosulfate. This is unwanted, as it leads to caustic requirements for pH control and the formation of a bleed stream to discharge these compounds from the process. The current research shows that due to the addition of MT, sulfate formation is prevented. As a result, all supplied H2S is completely converted into elemental sulfur. Treatment of a continuous supply of 51.0 mM day(-1) H2S and 79 microM day(-1) MT was feasible for a prolonged period, with 99 mol% selectivity for sulfur formation. A part of the MT reacts with the freshly produced sulfur particles to form dimethyl disulfide (DMDS) and dimethyl trisulfide (DMTS). Results indicate that MT, DMDS, and DMTS partly adsorb onto the biosulfur particles. At concentrations above 10 microM, these volatile organic sulfur compounds induce biomass decay.

The chemistry behind redox regulation with a focus on sulphur redox systems

Sulphur metabolism in plants provides a wealth of natural products, including several chemically unusual substances, such as thiosulphinates, polysulphides and isothiocyanates. Many of these reactive sulphur species (RSS) exhibit a distinct redox behaviour in vitro, which translates into a rather interesting biological activity in vivo, such as antibiotic, fungicidal, pesticidal or anticancer activity. While the molecular basis for such activity has long remained obscure, research into sulphur-based redox systems during the past 5-10 years has achieved a better knowledge of the in vitro properties of RSS and has led to an improved understanding of their impact on intracellular redox signalling and control pathways in living cells. It has become apparent that the redox chameleon sulphur occurs in biological systems in about 10 different oxidation states, which give rise to an extensive and complicated network of sulphur-based redox events. Together, natural sulphur products from plants and their intracellular targets provide the basis for innovative design of novel antibiotics, fungicides, pesticides and anticancer agents.

Transition-metal-catalyzed synthesis of organosulfur compounds

Rhodium complexes are efficient catalysts for the synthesis of organosulfur compounds. They catalyze the addition reaction of organosulfur groups to unsaturated compounds, the substitution of C-H with organosulfur groups, and single-bond metathesis reactions. They cleave S-S bonds and transfer the organosulfur groups to various organic and inorganic molecules, including alkynes, allenes, disulfides, sulfur, isonitriles, imines, diphosphines, thiophosphinites, hydrogen, 1-alkylthio-1-alkynes, thioesters, and allyl sulfides.

Planar Chirality due to a Polysulfur Ring in Natural Pentathiepin Cytotoxins. Implications of Planar Chirality for Enantiospecific Biosynthesis and Toxicity

A low-energy pathway for pentathiepin racemization has been found using density functional theory (DFT) calculations. 3-[1,2,3,4,5]pentathiepin-6-yl-propylamine served as a model compound for tunicate-derived pentathiepins. Pentathiepin racemization becomes a low-energy process in the presence of a thiolate ion nucleophile. It is unknown whether the biosynthetic process for pentathiepins is enantiospecific (Bentley, R. (2005) Chem. Soc. Rev. 34, 609) or whether toxicity differs between enantiomers. However, the ease of thiolate ion attack on the polysulfur ring suggests that nucleophiles may induce optical instability on the laboratory time scale. The DFT study predicts that enantiospecific behaviors such as toxicity differences between P- and M-pentathiepins would be difficult to determine experimentally. The computed results fit into a broader picture that nucleophiles assist in ring-opening and equilibration reactions of polysulfanes.

Regioselective (biomimetic) synthesis of a pentasulfane from ortho-benzoquinone

A mechanism is proposed for the formation of cyclic 5,6,7,8,9-pentathiabenzocycloheptene-1,2-diol, 4, from the reaction of o-benzoquinone with reduced elemental sulfur, H2Sx. 1,6-conjugate addition to the quinone is favored over 1,4-conjugate addition. Hydrogen bonding to the quinone oxygen enhances the nucleophilicity of H2Sx by facilitating the removal of the S-H proton. We propose that initially formed 3-polysulfidobenzene-diol intermediates are oxidized to their corresponding quinones and closure of the polysulfur ring subsequently takes place at the C3-C4 bond leading to 4. A possible mechanism for the formation of the pentasulfur linkage in 4 is discussed, which is the key moiety found in a number of natural products.

Polysulfides as biologically active ingredients of garlic

Garlic has long been considered as a natural remedy against a range of human illnesses, including various bacterial, viral and fungal infections. This kind of antibiotic activity of garlic has mostly been associated with the thiosulfinate allicin. Even so, recent studies have pointed towards a significant biological activity of trisulfides and tetrasulfides found in various Allium species, including a wide range of antibiotic properties and the ability of polysulfides to cause the death of certain cancer cells. The chemistry underlying the biological activity of these polysulfides is currently emerging. It seems to include a combination of several distinct transformations, such as oxidation reactions, superoxide radical and peroxide generation, decomposition with release of highly electrophilic S(x) species, inhibition of metalloenzymes, disturbance of metal homeostasis and membrane integrity and interference with different cellular signalling pathways. Further research in this area is required to provide a better understanding of polysulfide reactions within a biochemical context. This knowledge may ultimately form the basis for the development of 'green' antibiotics, fungicides and possibly anticancer agents with dramatically reduced side effects in humans.

Homolytic Dissociation of the Vulcanization Accelerator Tetramethylthiuram Disulfide (TMTD) and Structures and Stabilities of the Related Radicals Me2NCSn• (n = 1−4)

The homolytic dissociation of the important vulcanization accelerator tetramethylthiuram disulfide (TMTD) has been studied by ab initio calculations according to the G3X(MP2) and G3X(MP2)-RAD theories. Homolytic cleavage of the SS bond requires a low enthalpy of 150.0 kJ mol-1, whereas 268.0 kJ mol-1 is needed for the dissociation of one of the C-S single bonds. To cleave one of the SS bonds of the corresponding trisulfide (TMTT) requires 191.1 kJ mol-1. Me2NCS2* is a particularly stable sulfur radical as reflected in the low S-H bond dissociation enthalpy of the corresponding acid Me2NC(=S)SH (301.7 kJ mol-1). Me2NCS2* (2B2) is a sigma radical characterized by the unpaired spin density shared equally between the two sulfur atoms and by a 4-center (NCS2) delocalized pi system. The ESR g-tensors of the radicals Me2NCSn* (n = 1-3) have been calculated. Both TMTD and the mentioned radicals form stable chelate complexes with a Li+ cation, which here serves as a model for the zinc ions used in accelerated rubber vulcanization. Although the binding energy of the complex [Li(TMTD)]+ is larger than that of the isomeric species [Li(S2CNMe2)2]+ (12), the dissociation enthalpy of TMTD as a ligand is smaller (125.5 kJ mol-1) than that of free TMTD. In other words, the homolytic dissociation of the SS bonds of TMTD is facilitated by the presence of Li+ ions. The sulfurization of TMTD in the presence of Li+ to give the paramagnetic complex [Li(S3CNMe2)2]+ is strongly exothermic. These results suggest that TMTD reacts with naked zinc ions as well as with the surface atoms of solid zinc oxide particles in an analogous manner producing highly reactive complexes, which probably initiate the crosslinking process during vulcanization reactions of natural or synthetic rubber accelerated by TMTD/ZnO.

Complexation of mercury(II) in soil organic matter: EXAFS evidence for linear two-coordination with reduced sulfur groups

The chemical speciation of inorganic mercury (Hg) is to a great extent controlling biologically mediated processes, such as mercury methylation, in soils, sediments, and surface waters. Of utmost importance are complexation reactions with functional groups of natural organic matter (NOM), indirectly determining concentrations of bioavailable, inorganic Hg species. Two previous extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) spectroscopic studies have revealed that reduced organic sulfur (S) and oxygen/ nitrogen (O/N) groups are involved in the complexation of Hg(II) to humic substances extracted from organic soils. In this work, covering intact organic soils and extending to much lower concentrations of Hg than before, we show that Hg is complexed by two reduced organic S groups (likely thiols) at a distance of 2.33 A in a linear configuration. Furthermore, a third reduced S (likely an organic sulfide) was indicated to contribute with a weaker second shell attraction at a distance of 2.92-3.08 A. When all high-affinity S sites, corresponding to 20-30% of total reduced organic S, were saturated, a structure involving one carbonyl-O or amino-N at 2.07 A and one carboxyl-O at 2.84 A in the first shell, and two second shell C atoms at an average distance of 3.14 A, gave the best fit to data. Similar results were obtained for humic acid extracted from an organic wetland soil. We conclude that models that are in current use to describe the biogeochemistry of mercury and to calculate thermodynamic processes need to include a two-coordinated complexation of Hg(II) to reduced organic sulfur groups in NOM in soils and waters.

A scent of therapy: pharmacological implications of natural products containing redox-active sulfur atoms

A range of sulfur-containing natural products from plants, fungi, bacteria and animals have recently been investigated to determine their therapeutic potential. Preliminary in vitro and in vivo studies of compounds such as ergothioneine, ovothiols, allicin, leinamycin, varacin, lenthionine and diallyltetrasulfide have provided evidence for antioxidant, antibacterial, antimicrobial, antifungal and anticancer properties. The biological activity of these compounds is the result of specific chemical properties which converge in chemotypes such as thiols, disulfides, sulfenic and sulfinic acids,thiosulfinates, sulfoxides, sulfones and polysulfides. Redox-activity, catalysis, metal binding, enzyme inhibition and radical generation allow reactive sulfur species to interact with oxidative stressors, to affect the function of redox-sensitive cysteine proteins and to disrupt the integrity of DNA and cellular membranes. In some cases, the biological activity of sulfur-containing plant products depends on initial enzymatic activation, which allows thiosulfinates and isothiocyanates to be generated with high target selectivity. Not surprisingly, research into the biochemical and pharmacological properties of the lesser known sulfur chemotypes is rapidly gathering momentum.

From cyclopentanone oximes to bis[1,2,3]dithiazolo-s-indacenes, cyclopenta[c][1,2]thiazine, pentathiepino-, tetrathiino-, and thienocyclopenta[1,2,3]dithiazoles as a rich source of new materials

[Structure: see text]. The 1,5- and 1,7-s-hydrindacenedione dioximes reacted with S2Cl2 and iBu3N to give the first examples of bis[1,2,3]dithiazolo-s-indacenes; one of them was a near-infrared dye. In contrast, the silylated bicyclo[3.3.0]octan-2,6-dione dioxime reacted with S2Cl2 and Et3N to give a bicyclic 4-cyanoethylcyclopenta[1,2,3]dithiazole or, after addition of Li2S, a tricyclic 4-cyanoethyl-5,6-pentathiepinocyclopenta[1,2,3]dithiazole, also obtained from 2-cyanoethylcyclopentanone oxime, S2Cl2, and Hünig's base. In related reactions, 2-oxocyclopentylpropionate oxime gave the expected cyclopenta[1,2,3]dithiazole, in addition to an unexpected cyclopenta[c][1,2]thiazine that showed a reversible reduction wave in its CV at -0.95 V. Ethyl 2-oxocyclopentanecarboxylate oxime reacted with S2Cl2, Hünig's base, and Li2S to give a 5,6-tetrathiinocyclopenta[1,2,3]dithiazole derivative. Cyclopentathiophen-4-one oximes reacted with S2Cl2 and iBu3N to give thienocyclopenta[1,2,3]dithiazoles that showed UV-vis spectral bands that depended on the positions of the ring fusion.

Equilibrating C−S Bond Formation by C−H and S−S Bond Metathesis. Rhodium-Catalyzed Alkylthiolation Reaction of 1-Alkynes with Disulfides

In the presence of a catalytic amount of RhH(PPh3)4 (2 mol %) and 1,1'-bis(diphenylphosphino)ferrocene (dppf) (3 mol %), silylacetylenes reacted with dialkyl disulfides giving 1-alkylthio-2-trialkylsilylethynes in high yields. Alkanethiols liberated in this reaction did not interfere with the reaction, and the addition to silylacetylene forming 1-alkylthio-1-alkenes could be minimized under the conditions. Alkylacetylenes and arylacetylenes also reacted with disulfides when the alkyl or aryl groups were bulky. Diaryl disulfides gave arylthio derivatives under slightly modified conditions. The C-S bond-forming reaction is reversible: A reaction of a thiol and a 1-alkylthio-1-alkyne in the presence of the rhodium catalyst gave a 1-alkyne; alkylthio exchange reaction proceeded between a 1-alkylthio-1-alkyne and a disulfide. This is an equilibrating oxidative reaction of organic molecules with C-H and S-S bond metathesis forming C-S and S-H bonds.

Electrophilic Attack on Sulfur-Sulfur Bonds: Coordination of Lithium Cations to Sulfur-Rich Molecules Studied by Ab Initio MO Methods

Complex formation between gaseous Li+ ions and sulfur-containing neutral ligands, such as H2S, Me2Sn (n = 1-5; Me = CH3) and various isomers of hexasulfur (S6), has been studied by ab initio MO calculations at the G3X(MP2) level of theory. Generally, the formation of LiS(n) heterocycles and clusters is preferred in these reactions. The binding energies of the cation in the 29 complexes investigated range from -88 kJ mol(-1) for [H2SLi]+ to -189 kJ mol(-1) for the most stable isomer of [Me2S5Li]+ which contains three-coordinate Li+. Of the various S6 ligands (chair, boat, prism, branched ring, and triplet chain structures), two isomeric complexes containing the S5==S ligand have the highest binding energies (-163+/-1 kJ mol(-1)). However, the global minimum structure of [LiS6]+ is of C(3v) symmetry with the six-membered S(6) homocycle in the well-known chair conformation and three Li--S bonds with a length of 256 pm (binding energy: -134 kJ mol(-1)). Relatively unstable isomers of S6 are stabilized by complex formation with Li+. The interaction between the cation and the S6 ligands is mainly attributed to ion-dipole attraction with a little charge transfer, except in cations containing the six sulfur atoms in the form of separated neutral S2, S3, or S4 units, as in [Li(S3)2]+ and [Li(S2)(S4)]+. In the two most stable isomers of the [LiS6]+ complexes, the number of S--S bonds is at maximum and the coordination number of Li+ is either 3 or 4. A topological analysis of all investigated complexes revealed that the Li--S bonds of lengths below 280 pm are characterized by a maximum electron-density path and closed-shell interaction.

Novel isomers of hexasulfur: Prediction of a stable prism isomer and implications for the thermal reactivity of elemental sulfur

High-level ab initio molecular orbital calculations were employed to explore the potential energy hypersurface of hexasulfur, S(6). Twelve isomeric structures of S(6) have been identified: two unbranched rings (chair and boat), one trigonal prism of D(3h) symmetry, two singly branched rings (S(5)double bondS), three triplet chains, one singlet chain, and three doubly branched rings (Sdouble bondS(4)double bondS). The prism structure is essentially a cluster of three S(2) molecules connected via a six-center pi(*)-pi(*)-pi(*) interaction. It is by 51 kJ mol(-1) less stable than the lowest-energy chair form. The reactions to generate the boat, the prism, and the singly branched isomers from the chair form are predicted to have lower barriers than the ring opening reaction of cyclo-S(6), which requires an activation energy of 149 kJ mol(-1). The prism and singly branched isomers are found to be more reactive species than the chair form and they are potential sources of S(2) in chemical reactions involving elemental sulfur.

Polysulfane Antitumor Agents from o-Benzyne. An Odd−Even Alternation Found in the Stability of Products o-C6H4Sx (x = 1−8)

Benzyne is shown to add elemental sulfur and give rise to a series of polysulfane compounds. A computational and experimental study is presented. Odd-membered o-C6H4Sx rings (x = 1-8), except x = 1, which suffers from ring strain, have enhanced stability compared to even-membered rings. The acquisition of "odd-even" data may shed new light, revealing patterns on polysulfane stability and structure.